Coconut oil
Coconut oil (or coconut fat) is an edible oil derived from the kernels, meat, and milk of the
Due to its high levels of saturated fat, numerous health authorities recommend limiting its consumption as a food.[2][4][5]
Manufacturing
Coconut oil can be extracted through a wet or dry process.[1] More simply (but perhaps less effectively), oil can be produced by heating the meat via boiling water, the sun or a slow fire.[6]
Wet process
The all-wet process uses coconut milk extracted from raw coconut rather than dried copra. The proteins in the coconut milk create an emulsion of oil and water.[7] The more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. This used to be done by prolonged boiling, but this produces a discolored oil and is not economical. Modern techniques use centrifuges and pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, steam distillation, or some combination thereof. Despite numerous variations and technologies, wet processing is less viable than dry processing due to a 10–15% lower yield, even taking into account the losses due to spoilage and pests with dry processing. Wet processes also require investment in equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs.[8]
Dry process
Dry processing requires that the meat be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight, or kilns to create copra.[9] The copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut oil and a high-protein, high-fiber mash. The mash is of poor quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants; there is no process to extract protein from the mash.
Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months when picked) makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil-making process. Copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields.[10]
Conventional coconut oil processors use
Virgin oil
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) can be produced from fresh coconut milk, meat, or residue. Producing it from the fresh meat involves either wet-milling or drying the residue, and using a screw press to extract the oil. VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10–12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, then squeezing out the oil. The milk can also be fermented for 36–48 hours, the oil removed, and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids. Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk.[11]
A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately 1,440 kilograms (3,170 pounds)[clarification needed] yield around 170 kg (370 lb) of copra from which around 70 litres (15 imp gal) of coconut oil can be extracted.[12]
Refined oil
Refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD) oil is usually made from copra and dried coconut kernels, which are pressed in a heated hydraulic press to extract the oil. This yields practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut. This crude coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering.[13]
Another method for extraction of coconut oil involves the
Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut oil has no coconut taste or aroma. RBD oil is used for home cooking, commercial food processing, and cosmetic, industrial, and pharmaceutical purposes.
Hydrogenation
RBD coconut oil can be processed further into partially or fully hydrogenated oil to increase its melting point. Since virgin and RBD coconut oils melt at 24 °C (75 °F), foods containing coconut oil tend to melt in warm climates. A higher melting point is desirable in these warm climates, so the oil is hydrogenated. The melting point of hydrogenated coconut oil is 36–40 °C (97–104 °F).
In the process of hydrogenation, unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids) are combined with hydrogen in a catalytic process to make them more saturated. Coconut oil contains only 6% monounsaturated and 2% polyunsaturated fatty acids. In the partial hydrogenation process, some of these are transformed into
Fractionation
Coconut oil production – 2020 | |
---|---|
Country | (millions of tonnes) |
Philippines | 0.96 |
Indonesia | 0.60 |
India | 0.34 |
Vietnam | 0.18 |
Mexico | 0.13 |
World | 2.61 |
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[18]
|
Standards
The World Health Organization's Codex Alimentarius guidelines on food, food production, and food safety, published by the Food and Agriculture Organization, includes standards for commercial partners who produce coconut oil for human consumption.[19]
The Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC), whose 18 members produce about 90 per cent of the coconut sold commercially,[20] has published its standards for virgin coconut oil (VCO), defining virgin coconut oil as obtained from fresh, mature coconut kernels through means that do not "lead to alteration of the oil."[21]
Pests
Oil quality and production are dependent upon palm cultivation, which is threatened by
Production
In 2020, world production of coconut oil was 2.61 million metric tons (2.88 million short tons), led by the Philippines and Indonesia accounting together for 60% of the world total.[18]
Composition and comparison
Coconut oil contains only trace amounts of free fatty acids (about 0.03% by mass).
The approximate concentration of fatty acids in coconut oil (midpoint of range in source):[citation needed]
The following table provides information about the composition of coconut oil and how it compares with other vegetable oils.
Type | Processing treatment[26] |
Saturated fatty acids |
Monounsaturated fatty acids |
Polyunsaturated fatty acids |
Smoke point | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total[24] | Oleic acid (ω-9) |
Total[24] | α-Linolenic acid (ω-3) |
Linoleic acid (ω-6) |
ω-6:3 ratio | ||||
Avocado[27] | 11.6 | 70.6 | 52–66 [28] |
13.5 | 1 | 12.5 | 12.5:1 | 250 °C (482 °F)[29] | |
Brazil nut[30] | 24.8 | 32.7 | 31.3 | 42.0 | 0.1 | 41.9 | 419:1 | 208 °C (406 °F)[31] | |
Canola[32] | 7.4 | 63.3 | 61.8 | 28.1 | 9.1 | 18.6 | 2:1 | 204 °C (400 °F)[33] | |
Coconut[34] | 82.5 | 6.3 | 6 | 1.7 | 0.019 | 1.68 | 88:1 | 175 °C (347 °F)[31] | |
Corn[35] | 12.9 | 27.6 | 27.3 | 54.7 | 1 | 58 | 58:1 | 232 °C (450 °F)[33] | |
Cottonseed[36] | 25.9 | 17.8 | 19 | 51.9 | 1 | 54 | 54:1 | 216 °C (420 °F)[33] | |
Cottonseed[37] | hydrogenated |
93.6 | 1.5 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.5:1 | ||
Flaxseed/linseed[38] | 9.0 | 18.4 | 18 | 67.8 | 53 | 13 | 0.2:1 | 107 °C (225 °F) | |
Grape seed | 10.4 | 14.8 | 14.3 | 74.9 | 0.15 | 74.7 | very high | 216 °C (421 °F)[39] | |
Hemp seed[40] | 7.0 | 9.0 | 9.0 | 82.0 | 22.0 | 54.0 | 2.5:1 | 166 °C (330 °F)[41] | |
High-oleic safflower oil[42] |
7.5 | 75.2 | 75.2 | 12.8 | 0 | 12.8 | very high | 212 °C (414 °F)[31] | |
Olive, Extra Virgin[43] | 13.8 | 73.0 | 71.3 | 10.5 | 0.7 | 9.8 | 14:1 | 193 °C (380 °F)[31] | |
Palm[44] | 49.3 | 37.0 | 40 | 9.3 | 0.2 | 9.1 | 45.5:1 | 235 °C (455 °F) | |
Palm[45] | hydrogenated | 88.2 | 5.7 | 0 | |||||
Peanut[46] | 16.2 | 57.1 | 55.4 | 19.9 | 0.318 | 19.6 | 61.6:1 | 232 °C (450 °F)[33] | |
Rice bran oil | 25 | 38.4 | 38.4 | 36.6 | 2.2 | 34.4[47] | 15.6:1 | 232 °C (450 °F)[48] | |
Sesame[49] | 14.2 | 39.7 | 39.3 | 41.7 | 0.3 | 41.3 | 138:1 | ||
Soybean[50] | 15.6 | 22.8 | 22.6 | 57.7 | 7 | 51 | 7.3:1 | 238 °C (460 °F)[33] | |
Soybean[51] | partially hydrogenated |
14.9 | 43.0 | 42.5 | 37.6 | 2.6 | 34.9 | 13.4:1 | |
Sunflower[52] | 8.99 | 63.4 | 62.9 | 20.7 | 0.16 | 20.5 | 128:1 | 227 °C (440 °F)[33] | |
Walnut oil[53] | unrefined | 9.1 | 22.8 | 22.2 | 63.3 | 10.4 | 52.9 | 5:1 | 160 °C (320 °F)[54] |
Health concerns
Many health organizations advise against the consumption of coconut oil owing to its high levels of
Marketing of coconut oil has created the inaccurate belief that it is a "healthy food".
Clinical research
A 2017 review of clinical research by experts associated with the American Heart Association recommended against consumption of coconut oil due to its propensity for increasing blood levels of LDL as a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases.[4]
A 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials on whether chronic consumption of coconut oil might affect risk factors for cardiovascular diseases found that low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (but also high-density lipoprotein (HDL)) concentrations were elevated compared with nontropical vegetable oils. The review stated that "coconut oil should not be viewed as healthy oil for cardiovascular disease risk reduction, and limiting coconut oil consumption because of its high saturated fat content is warranted."[65]
Uses
Nutritional value per 100 g | |
---|---|
Energy | 3,730 kJ (890 kcal) |
99 g | |
Saturated | 82.5 g |
Monounsaturated | 6.3 g |
Polyunsaturated | 1.7 g |
Vitamins | Quantity %DV† |
Vitamin E | 20% 3 mg |
Vitamin K | 1% 0.6 μg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Iron | 0% 0.05 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
phytosterols | 86 mg |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[69] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[70] |
Nutrition and fat composition
Coconut oil is 99% fat, composed mainly of saturated fats (82% of total; table). In a 100 gram reference amount, coconut oil supplies 890
In food
Coconut oil has a long history in Asia, particularly in tropical regions where the plant is abundant, where it has been used for cooking. It is the oil of choice in Sri Lankan cuisine, where it is used for sautéing and frying, in both savoury and sweet dishes. It also plays a prominent role in the cuisines of Thailand and Kerala.
As an oil relatively recently introduced to Western countries, coconut oil is commonly used in baked goods, pastries, and
Other culinary uses include replacing solid fats produced through hydrogenation in baked and confectionery goods.[68] Hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated coconut oil is often used in non-dairy creamers and snack foods. In frying, the smoke point of coconut oil is 177 °C (351 °F).
Industry
Coconut oil has been tested for use as a feedstock for
The Philippines,
Coconut oil has been tested for use as an
.Acids derived from coconut oil can be used as herbicides.[80] Treatment with catalytic lipase has reportedly given coconut oil antimicrobial characteristics.[81] Before the advent of electrical lighting, coconut oil was the primary oil used for illumination in India and was exported as cochin oil.[82]
Soap
Coconut oil is an important base ingredient for the manufacture of soap. Soap made with coconut oil tends to be hard, though it retains more water than soap made with other oils and thus increases manufacturer yields. It is more soluble in hard water and salt water than other soaps allowing it to lather more easily.[83]
Other uses
The oil can be used to treat dryness and sores from
See also
- KERAFED
- Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease
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Further reading
- Adkins SW; Foale M; Samosir YMS, eds. (2006). Coconut revival – new possibilities for the 'tree of life'. Proceedings of the International Coconut Forum, 22–24 November 2005 (PDF). Cairns, Australia: ACIAR Proceedings. ISBN 978-1863205153. Archived from the original(PDF) on 15 April 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
- Salunkhe, D.K., J.K. Chavan, R.N. Adsule, and S.S. Kadam. (1992). World Oilseeds: Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization. Springer. ISBN 978-0442001124.
External links
- Media related to Coconut oil at Wikimedia Commons