Code talker
A code talker was a person employed by the military during wartime to use a little-known language as a means of secret communication. The term is most often used for United States service members during the
There were two code types used during World War II. Type one codes were formally developed based on the languages of the
The term Code Talker was originally coined by the United States Marine Corps and used to identify individuals who completed the special training required to qualify as Code Talkers with their service records indicating "642 – Code Talker" as a duty assignment. Today, the term Code Talker is still strongly associated with the bilingual
Other Native American communicators—now referred to as code talkers—were deployed by the
Languages
Assiniboine
Native speakers of the Assiniboine language served as code talkers during World War II to encrypt communications.[10] One of these code talkers was Gilbert Horn Sr., who grew up in the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation of Montana and became a tribal judge and politician.[10]
Basque
In November 1952,
According to Euzko Deya, on August 1, 1942, Lieutenants Nemesio Aguirre, Fernández Bakaicoa, and Juanana received a Basque-coded message from San Diego for Admiral
In 2017, Pedro Oiarzabal and Guillermo Tabernilla published a paper refuting Euzko Deya's article.
Cherokee
The first known use of code talkers in the US military was during World War I.
Choctaw
During
Comanche
German authorities knew about the use of code talkers during World War I. Germans sent a team of thirty anthropologists to the United States to learn Native American languages before the outbreak of World War II.[20] However, the task proved too difficult because of the large array of Indigenous languages and dialects. Nonetheless, after learning of the Nazi effort, the US Army opted not to implement a large-scale code talker program in the European theater.
Initially, 17 code talkers were enlisted but three were unable to make the trip across the Atlantic when the unit was finally deployed.
Two Comanche code talkers were assigned to each regiment, and the remainder were assigned to the 4th Infantry Division headquarters. Shortly after landing on Utah Beach on June 6, 1944, the Comanche began transmitting messages. Some were wounded but none killed.[24]
In 1989, the French government awarded the Comanche code talkers the Chevalier of the National Order of Merit. On November 30, 1999, the United States Department of Defense presented Charles Chibitty with the Knowlton Award, in recognition of his outstanding intelligence work.[24][26]
Cree
In
Hungarian
In 2022 during the Russo-Ukrainian War, the Hungarian language is reported to be used by the Ukrainian army to relay operational military information and orders to circumvent being understood by the invading Russian army without the need to encrypt and decipher the messages.[30][31] Ukraine has a sizeable
. For this reason it is distinct and incomprehensible for Russian speakers.Meskwaki
A group of 27 Meskwaki enlisted in the US Army together in January 1941; they comprised 16 percent of Iowa's Meskwaki population. During World War II, the US Army trained eight Meskwaki men to use their native Fox language as code talkers. They were assigned to North Africa. The eight were posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 2013; the government gave the awards to representatives of the Meskwaki community.[32][33]
Mohawk
Mohawk language code talkers were used during World War II by the United States Army in the Pacific theater. Levi Oakes, a Mohawk code talker born in Canada, was deployed to protect messages being sent by Allied Forces using Kanien'kéha, a Mohawk sub-set language. Oakes died in May 2019; he was the last of the Mohawk code talkers.[34]
Muscogee (Seminole and Creek)
The
Philip Johnston, a civil engineer for the city of Los Angeles,[40] proposed the use of the Navajo language to the United States Marine Corps at the beginning of World War II. Johnston, a World War I veteran, was raised on the Navajo reservation as the son of missionaries to the Navajo. He was able to converse in what is called "Trader's Navajo" - a pidgin language. He was among a few non-Navajo who had enough exposure to it to understand some of its nuances. Many Navajo men enlisted shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor and eagerly contributed to the war effort.
Because Navajo has a complex grammar, it is not mutually intelligible with even its closest relatives within the Na-Dene family to provide meaningful information. At the time, it was still an unwritten language, and Johnston believed Navajo could satisfy the military requirement for an undecipherable code. Its complex syntax and phonology, not to mention its numerous dialects, made it unintelligible to anyone without extensive exposure and training. One estimate indicates that at the outbreak of World War II, fewer than 30 non-Navajo could understand the language.[41]
In early 1942, Johnston met with the commanding general of the Amphibious Corps, Major General
The First Twenty-Nine and the creation of the code
One of the key features of the Navajo Code Talkers is that they employed a coded version of their language. Other Navajos who were not trained in the Navajo Code could not decipher the messages being sent.
Platoon 382 was the Marine Corps' first "all-Indian, all-Navajo" Platoon. The members of this platoon would become known as The First Twenty-Nine. Most were recruited from near the Fort Wingate, NM area. The youngest was William Dean Yazzie (aka Dean Wilson) who was only 15 when he was recruited. The oldest was Carl N. Gorman—who with his son, R.C. Gorman, would go on to become an artist of great acclaim and who would design the Code Talkers' logo—at age 35.
Code talker's name | Area of birth | Other notes to service |
---|---|---|
Samuel Begay | Toadlena, AZ | |
John Brown, Jr | Chinle, AZ | |
Lowell Damon | Fort Defiance, AZ | |
James Dixon | Shiprock, NM | |
Carl Gorman | Chinle, AZ | |
Alfred Leonard | Lukachukai, AZ | |
Johnny Manuelito | Sheep Springs, NM | |
William McCabe | Ganado, AZ | Purple Heart |
Balmer Slowtalker (aka Joe Palmer) | Leupp, AZ | |
Nelson Thompson | Leupp, AZ | Purple Heart |
Benjamin Cleveland | Fort Defiance, AZ | Purple Heart |
Jack Nez | Canyon del Muerto, AZ | |
Oscar Ilthma | Lupton, AZ | Purple Heart |
George Dennison | Fort Defiance, AZ | |
Chester Nez | Two Wells, AZ | |
Roy Begay | Black Mountain, AZ | |
Cozy Brown | Chinle, AZ | |
Eugene Crawford | Tohatchi, NM | |
John Benally | Fort Defiance, AZ | |
Lloyd Oliver | Fruitland, NM | |
John Willie | Shonto, AZ | |
Charlie Begay | Tocito, NM | Purple Heart |
Wilsie Bitsie | Rehoboth, NM | |
Frank Denny Pete | Fruitland, NM | Purple Heart |
John Chee | Tocito, NM | |
Allen Dale June | Kaibito, AZ | |
Harry Tsosie | Rough Rock, AZ | Purple Heart, KIA |
David Curley | Phoenix, AZ | |
Bill Yazzie (aka Dean Wilson) | TeecNosPos, AZ |
The Navajo code was formally developed and modeled on the
Deployment and evolution of the code and post-war code talkers
A codebook was developed to teach the many relevant words and concepts to new initiates. The text was for classroom purposes only and was never to be taken into the field. The code talkers memorized all these variations and practiced their rapid use under stressful conditions during training. Navajo speakers who had not been trained in the code work would have no idea what the code talkers' messages meant; they would hear only truncated and disjointed strings of individual, unrelated nouns and verbs.[46][47]
The Navajo code talkers were commended for the skill, speed, and accuracy they demonstrated throughout the war. At the
After incidents where Navajo code talkers were mistaken for ethnic Japanese and were captured by other American soldiers, several were assigned a personal bodyguard whose principal duty was to protect them from their own side. According to Bill Toledo, one of the second group after the original 29, they had a secret secondary duty: if their charge was at risk of being captured, they were to shoot him to protect the code. Fortunately, none was ever called upon to do so.[48][49]
To ensure a consistent use of code terminologies throughout the Pacific theater, representative code talkers of each of the US Marine divisions met in Hawaii to discuss shortcomings in the code, incorporate new terms into the system, and update their codebooks. These representatives, in turn, trained other code talkers who could not attend the meeting. As the war progressed, additional code words were added and incorporated program-wide. In other instances, informal shortcut code words were devised for a particular campaign and not disseminated beyond the area of operation. Examples of code words include the Navajo word for buzzard, jeeshóóʼ, which was used for bomber, while the code word used for submarine, béésh łóóʼ, meant iron fish in Navajo.[50] The last of the original 29 Navajo code talkers who developed the code, Chester Nez, died on June 4, 2014.[51]
Four of the last nine Navajo code talkers used in the military died in 2019: Alfred K. Newman died on January 13, 2019, at the age of 94.[52] On May 10, 2019, Fleming Begaye Sr. died at the age of 97.[53] New Mexico State Senator John Pinto, elected in 1977, died in office on May 24, 2019.[54] William Tully Brown died in June 2019 aged 96.[55] Joe Vandever Sr. died at 96 on January 31, 2020.[56] Samuel Sandoval died on 29 July 2022, at the age of 98.[57][58] Only three remaining members are still living as of 2024, John Kinsel Sr., Thomas H. Begay, and Peter MacDonald.[59]
Some Code Talkers such as Chester Nez and William Dean Yazzie (aka Dean Wilson) continued to serve in the Marine Corps through the Korean War. Rumors of the deployment of the Navajo Code into the Korean War and after have never been proven. The Code remained classified until 1968. The Navajo code is the only spoken military code never to have been deciphered.[45]
Nubian
In the
Tlingit
During World War II, American soldiers used their native Tlingit as a code against Japanese forces. Their actions remained unknown, even after the declassification of code talkers and the publication of the Navajo code talkers. The memory of five deceased Tlingit code talkers was honored by the Alaska legislature in March 2019.[65][66]
Welsh
A system employing the Welsh language was used by British forces during World War II, but not to any great extent. In 1942, the Royal Air Force developed a plan to use Welsh for secret communications, but it was never implemented.[67] Welsh was used more recently in the Yugoslav Wars for non-vital messages.[68]
Wenzhounese
China used Wenzhounese-speaking people as code talkers during the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War.[69][70]
Post-war recognition
The Navajo code talkers received no recognition until 1968 when their operation was declassified.[71] In 1982, the code talkers were given a Certificate of Recognition by US President Ronald Reagan, who also named August 14, 1982 as Navajo Code Talkers Day.[72][73][74][75]
On December 21, 2000, President
Journalist
The Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008 (Public Law 110–420) was signed into law by President
On November 27, 2017, three Navajo code talkers, joined by the President of the Navajo Nation, Russell Begaye, appeared with President Donald Trump in the Oval Office in an official White House ceremony. They were there to "pay tribute to the contributions of the young Native Americans recruited by the United States military to create top-secret coded messages used to communicate during World War II battles."[81] The executive director of the National Congress of American Indians, Jacqueline Pata, noted that Native Americans have "a very high level of participation in the military and veterans' service." A statement by a Navajo Nation Council Delegate and comments by Pata and Begaye, among others, objected to Trump's remarks during the event, including his use "once again ... [of] the word Pocahontas in a negative way towards a political adversary Elizabeth Warren who claims 'Native American heritage'."[81][82][83] The National Congress of American Indians objected to Trump's use of the name Pocahontas, a historical Native American figure, as a derogatory term.[84]
See also
- Native Americans and World War II
- United States Army Indian Scouts
- Windtalkers, a 2002 American war film on Navajo radio operators in World War II
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Further reading
- Aaseng, Nathan. Navajo Code Talkers: America's Secret Weapon in World War II. New York: Walker & Company, 1992. OCLC 672012184
- Connole, Joseph. "A Nation Whose Language You Will Not Understand: The Comanche Code Talkers of WWII". Whispering Wind Magazine, March, 2012, Vol. 40, No. 5, Issue #279. pp. 21–26
- Durrett, Deanne. Unsung Heroes of World War II: The Story of the Navajo Code Talkers. Library of American Indian History, Facts on File, Inc., 1998. OCLC 38067688
- Gawne, Jonathan. Spearheading D-Day. Paris: Histoire et Collections, 1999. OCLC 45700217
- Holm, Tom. Code Talkers and Warriors: Native Americans and World War II. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2007. ISBN 0791093409
- ISBN 0684831309
- McClain, Salley. Navajo Weapon: The Navajo Code Talkers. Tucson, Arizona: Rio Nuevo Publishers, 2001. OCLC 48584920
- Meadows, William C. The Comanche Code Talkers of World War II. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002. OCLC 55896749
- ISBN 978-0385495325
External links
- United States. Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008
- National Museum of the American Indian exhibition on Code Talkers, entitled Native Words/Native Wisdom
- Northern Arizona University Cline Library Special Collections Code Talkers exhibition
- Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Code Talkers
- Official website of the Navajo Code talkers
- Images of gold medals awarded to the participating tribes