Cognitive neuroscience
This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (December 2012) |
Part of a series on |
Psychology |
---|
Neuropsychology |
---|
Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the
Parts of the brain play an important role in this field. Neurons play the most vital role, since the main point is to establish an understanding of cognition from a neural perspective, along with the different lobes of the cerebral cortex.
Methods employed in cognitive neuroscience include experimental procedures from
Studies of patients with cognitive deficits due to brain lesions constitute an important aspect of cognitive neuroscience. The damages in lesioned brains provide a comparable starting point on regards to healthy and fully functioning brains. These damages change the neural circuits in the brain and cause it to malfunction during basic cognitive processes, such as memory or learning. People have learning disabilities and such damage, can be compared with how the healthy neural circuits are functioning, and possibly draw conclusions about the basis of the affected cognitive processes. Some examples of learning disabilities in the brain include places in Wernicke's area, the left side of the temporal lobe, and Brocca's area close to the frontal lobe.[3]
Also, cognitive abilities based on brain development are studied and examined under the subfield of developmental cognitive neuroscience. This shows brain development over time, analyzing differences and concocting possible reasons for those differences.
Theoretical approaches include computational neuroscience and cognitive psychology.
Historical origins
Cognitive neuroscience is an interdisciplinary area of study that has emerged from neuroscience and psychology.[4] There are several stages in these disciplines that have changed the way researchers approached their investigations and that led to the field becoming fully established.
Although the task of cognitive neuroscience is to describe the neural mechanisms associated with the mind, historically it has progressed by investigating how a certain area of the brain supports a given mental faculty. However, early efforts to subdivide the brain proved to be problematic. The phrenologist movement failed to supply a scientific basis for its theories and has since been rejected. The aggregate field view, meaning that all areas of the brain participated in all behavior,[5] was also rejected as a result of brain mapping, which began with Hitzig and Fritsch's experiments[6] and eventually developed through methods such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).[7] Gestalt theory, neuropsychology, and the cognitive revolution were major turning points in the creation of cognitive neuroscience as a field, bringing together ideas and techniques that enabled researchers to make more links between behavior and its neural substrates.
Origins in philosophy
Philosophers have always been interested in the mind: "the idea that explaining a phenomenon involves understanding the mechanism responsible for it has deep roots in the History of Philosophy from atomic theories in 5th century B.C. to its rebirth in the 17th and 18th century in the works of Galileo, Descartes, and Boyle. Among others, it's Descartes' idea that machines humans build could work as models of scientific explanation."[8] For example, Aristotle thought the brain was the body's cooling system and the capacity for intelligence was located in the heart. It has been suggested that the first person to believe otherwise was the Roman physician Galen in the second century AD, who declared that the brain was the source of mental activity,[9] although this has also been accredited to Alcmaeon.[10] However, Galen believed that personality and emotion were not generated by the brain, but rather by other organs. Andreas Vesalius, an anatomist and physician, was the first to believe that the brain and the nervous system are the center of the mind and emotion.[11] Psychology, a major contributing field to cognitive neuroscience, emerged from philosophical reasoning about the mind.[12]
19th century
Phrenology
One of the predecessors to cognitive neuroscience was
Localizationist view
The localizationist view was concerned with mental abilities being localized to specific areas of the brain rather than on what the characteristics of the abilities were and how to measure them.
Aggregate field view
According to the aggregate field view, all areas of the brain participate in every mental function.[5]
Emergence of neuropsychology
Perhaps the first serious attempts to localize mental functions to specific locations in the brain was by
Mapping the brain
In 1870, German physicians Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch published their findings of the behavior of animals. Hitzig and Fritsch ran an electric current through the cerebral cortex of a dog, causing different muscles to contract depending on which areas of the brain were electrically stimulated. This led to the proposition that individual functions are localized to specific areas of the brain rather than the cerebrum as a whole, as the aggregate field view suggests.[6] Brodmann was also an important figure in brain mapping; his experiments based on Franz Nissl's tissue staining techniques divided the brain into fifty-two areas.
20th century
Cognitive revolution
At the start of the 20th century, attitudes in America were characterized by pragmatism, which led to a preference for behaviorism as the primary approach in psychology. J.B. Watson was a key figure with his stimulus-response approach. By conducting experiments on animals he was aiming to be able to predict and control behavior. Behaviorism eventually failed because it could not provide realistic psychology of human action and thought – it focused primarily on stimulus-response associations at the expense of explaining phenomena like thought and imagination. This led to what is often termed as the "cognitive revolution".[18]
Neuron doctrine
In the early 20th century, Santiago Ramón y Cajal and Camillo Golgi began working on the structure of the neuron. Golgi developed a silver staining method that could entirely stain several cells in a particular area, leading him to believe that neurons were directly connected with each other in one cytoplasm. Cajal challenged this view after staining areas of the brain that had less myelin and discovering that neurons were discrete cells. Cajal also discovered that cells transmit electrical signals down the neuron in one direction only. Both Golgi and Cajal were awarded a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for this work on the neuron doctrine.[19]
Mid-late 20th century
Several findings in the 20th century continued to advance the field, such as the discovery of
Brain mapping
New brain mapping technology, particularly fMRI and PET, allowed researchers to investigate experimental strategies of cognitive psychology by observing brain function. Although this is often thought of as a new method (most of the technology is relatively recent), the underlying principle goes back as far as 1878 when blood flow was first associated with brain function.[7] Angelo Mosso, an Italian psychologist of the 19th century, had monitored the pulsations of the adult brain through neurosurgically created bony defects in the skulls of patients. He noted that when the subjects engaged in tasks such as mathematical calculations the pulsations of the brain increased locally. Such observations led Mosso to conclude that blood flow of the brain followed function.[7]
Emergence of a new discipline
Birth of cognitive science
On September 11, 1956, a large-scale meeting of
Combining neuroscience and cognitive science
Before the 1980s, interaction between neuroscience and cognitive science was scarce.
Adaptive resonance theory (ART) is a cognitive neuroscience theory developed by
In 2014,
In 2017, Wolfram Schultz, Peter Dayan and Ray Dolan were awarded the Brain Prize "for their multidisciplinary analysis of brain mechanisms that link learning to reward, which has far-reaching implications for the understanding of human behaviour, including disorders of decision-making in conditions such as gambling, drug addiction, compulsive behaviour and schizophrenia".,[33]
Recent trends
Recently the focus of research had expanded from the localization of brain area(s) for specific functions in the adult brain using a single technology. Studies have been diverging in several different directions: exploring the interactions between different brain areas, using multiple technologies and approaches to understand brain functions, and using computational approaches.[34] Advances in non-invasive functional neuroimaging and associated data analysis methods have also made it possible to use highly naturalistic stimuli and tasks such as feature films depicting social interactions in cognitive neuroscience studies.[35]
Another very recent trend in cognitive neuroscience is the use of optogenetics to explore circuit function and its behavioral consequences.[36]
Topics
- Attention
- Cognitive development
- Consciousness
- Creativity
- Decision-making
- Emotions
- Intelligence
- Language
- Learning
- Memory
- Perception
- Social cognition
- Mind Wandering
Methods
Experimental methods include:
- Psychophysics
- Eye-tracking
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging
- Electroencephalography
- Magnetoencephalography
- Electrocorticography
- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
- Computational Modeling
Notable people
- Jesper Mogensen, Danish neuroscientist and former university professor
See also
References
- ^ Gazzaniga, Ivry and Mangun 2002, cf. title
- ^ a b Gazzaniga 2002, p. xv
- ^ "Learning Disabilities | BRAIN". brainaacn.org. Retrieved 2022-04-27.
- ^ a b c d e Kosslyn, S, M. & Andersen, R, A. (1992). Frontiers in cognitive neuroscience. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.
- ^ a b Cordelia Erickson-Davis. "Neurofeedback Training for Parkinsonian Tremor and Bradykinesia" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-05-23.
- ^ S2CID 40594131.
- ^ S2CID 205403489.
- ^ Sirgiovanni, Elisabetta (2009). "The Mechanistic Approach to Psychiatric Classification" (PDF). Dialogues in Philosophy, Mental and Neuro Sciences. 2 (2): 45–49.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-262-29803-2.[page needed]
- S2CID 146717837.
- S2CID 34077852.
- .
- ^ Bear, Connors & Paradiso 2007, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Enersen, O. D. 2009
- ^ Boring, E.G. (1957). A history of experimental psychology. New York.
- ^ "Aphasia". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. Retrieved 2022-04-27.
- ^ "Wernicke area | Definition, Location, Function, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-04-27.
- S2CID 38146862.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906".
- PMID 21549742.
- S2CID 11869810.
- Gazzaniga, Michael(1984). "Preface". Handbook of Cognitive Neuroscience. pp. vii.
- S2CID 15654531.
- ^ "Approaches in Cognitive Psychology". JungMinded.
- ^ not available, [1] not available
- ^ Society for Neuroscience. Date of the first meeting of the Society for Neuroscience
- ^ "About CNS". Cognitive Neuroscience Society. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
- ^ "Growth of Psychology as a Science - Origin of Psychology". www.boundless.com. Archived from the original on 28 June 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2022.
- ^ Carpenter, G.A., Grossberg, S., & Reynolds, J.H. (1991), ARTMAP: Supervised real-time learning and classification of nonstationary data by a self-organizing neural network Archived 2006-05-19 at the Wayback Machine, Neural Networks, 4, 565-588
- ^ "The Brain Prize". Archived from the original on 2015-09-05. Retrieved 2015-11-10.
- ^ "2014 Kavli Prize Laureates in Neuroscience". 2014-05-30.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2014". NobelPrize.org.
- ^ Gallager, James (6 March 2017). "Scientists win prize for brain research". BBC. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
- ^ Takeo, Watanabe. "Cognitive neuroscience Editorial overview" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-12-24. Retrieved 2011-12-01.
- S2CID 12688628.
- PMID 24046763.
Further reading
- Baars, Bernard J.; Gage, Nicole M. (2010). Cognition, Brain, and Consciousness: Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-381440-1.
- Bear, Mark F.; Connors, Barry W.; Paradiso, Michael A. (2007). Neuroscience. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-6003-4.
- ISBN 978-0-262-33965-0.
- Code, Chris (2004). "Classic Cases: Ancient and Modern Milestones in the Development of Neuropsychological Science". In Code, Chris; Joanette, Yves; Lecours, André Roch; Wallesch, Claus-W (eds.). Classic Cases in Neuropsychology. pp. 17–25. ISBN 978-0-203-30411-2.
- Enersen, O. D. (2009). John Hughlings Jackson. In: Who Named It. http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2766.html Retrieved 14 August 2009
- Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B. & Mangun, G. R. (2002). Cognitive Neuroscience: The biology of the mind (2nd ed.). New York: W.W.Norton.
- Gallistel, R. (2009). "Memory and the Computational Brain: Why Cognitive Science will Transform Neuroscience." ISBN 978-1-4051-2287-0.
- ISBN 0-262-07254-8
- ISBN 0-262-57117-X.
- Sternberg, Eliezer J. Are You a Machine? The Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
- Ward, Jamie (2015). The Student's Guide to Cognitive Neuroscience (3rd ed.). Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1848722729.
- Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition By Roberto Cabeza, Alan Kingstone
- Principles of neural science By Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, Thomas M. Jessell
- The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory By Amanda Parker, Edward L. Wilding, Timothy J. Bussey
- Neuronal Theories of the Brain By Christof Koch, Joel L. Davis
- Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning By Keith James Holyoak, Robert G. Morrison
- Handbook of Mathematical Cognition By Jamie I. D. Campbell
- Cognitive Psychology By Michael W. Eysenck, Mark T. Keane
- Development of Intelligence By Mike Anderson
- Development of Mental Processing By Andreas Demetriou, et al.
- Memory and Thinking By Robert H. Logie, K. J. Gilhooly
- Memory Capacity By Nelson Cowan
- Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science
- Models of Working Memory By Akira Miyake, Priti Shah
- Memory and Thinking By Robert H. Logie, K. J. Gilhooly
- Variation in Working Memory By Andrew R. A. Conway, et al.
- Memory Capacity By Nelson Cowan
- Cognition and Intelligence By Robert J. Sternberg, Jean E. Pretz
- General Factor of Intelligence By Robert J. Sternberg, Elena Grigorenko
- Neurological Basis of Learning, Development and Discovery By Anton E. Lawson
- Memory and Human Cognition By John T. E. Richardson
- Society for Neuroscience. https://web.archive.org/web/20090805111859/http://www.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename=about_SfN#timeline Retrieved 14 August 2009
- Keiji Tanaka,"Current Opinion in Neurobiology", (2007)
External links
- Cognitive Neuroscience Society Homepage
- There's Something about Zero
- What Is Cognitive Neuroscience?, Jamie Ward/Psychology Press
- goCognitive - Educational Tools for Cognitive Neuroscience (including video interviews)
- CogNet, The Brain and Cognitive Sciences Community Online, MIT
- Cognitive Neuroscience Arena, Psychology Press
- Cognitive Neuroscience and Philosophy, CUJCS, Spring 2002
- Whole Brain Atlas Top 100 Brain Structures
- Cognitive Neuroscience Discussion Group
- John Jonides, a big role in Cognitive Neurosciences by Beebrite
- Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
- AgliotiLAB - Social and Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory founded in 2003 in Rome, Italy
Related Wikibooks