Academic degree
An academic degree is a qualification awarded to a student upon successful completion of a course of study in
In the UK and countries whose educational systems are based on the British system, honours degrees are divided into classes: first, second (broken into upper second, or 2.1, and lower second, or 2.2) and third class.
History
Emergence of the doctor's and master's degrees and the licentiate
The doctorate (
In universities, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild.[3] The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Master of Arts" was seven years. This was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous,[4] but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree.
Today the terms "master" (from the Latin magister, lit. 'teacher'), "Doctor", and "Professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the Medieval university, they were equivalent terms. The use of them in the degree name was a matter of custom at a university. Most universities conferred the Master of Arts, although the highest degree was often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor of Theology/Divinity, depending on the place.
The earliest
The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including medicine.[13]
The University of Paris used the term "master" for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh.
Emergence of the bachelor's degree
In
Evolution of the terminology of degrees
The naming of degrees eventually became linked to the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as "masters", but those in theology, medicine and law were known as "doctors". As a study in the arts or grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master's degree. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th- and 19th-century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M.A.). The practice of using the term doctor for PhDs developed within German universities and spread across the academic world.
The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat (cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have completed their secondary education and allows the student to attend university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded a licence, much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. Spain had a similar structure: the term "Bachiller" was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as "Bachillerato". The standard Spanish university 5-year degree was "Licenciado", (although there were a few 3-year associate degrees called "diplomaturas", from where the "diplomados" could move to study a related licenciatura). The highest level was "Doctor".
Degrees awarded by institutions other than universities
In the past, degrees have been directly issued by the authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In
Among educational institutions,
Academic dress
In many countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution, identifying the status of the individual wearing them.
Laws on granting and use of degrees
In many countries, degrees may only be awarded by institutions authorised to do so by the national or regional government. Frequently, governments will also regulate the use of the word university in the names of businesses. This approach is followed, for example, by Australia,[17] the United Kingdom[18] and Israel.[19] The use of fake degrees by individuals, either obtained from a bogus institution or simply invented, is often covered by fraud laws.[20][21]
Indicating earned degrees
Depending on the culture and the degree earned, degrees may be indicated by a pre-nominal title, post-nominal letters, a choice of either, or not indicated at all. In countries influenced by the UK, post-nominal letters are the norm, with only doctorates granting a title, while titles are the norm in many northern European countries.
Depending on the culture and the purpose of the listing, only the highest degree, a selection of degrees, or all degrees might be listed. The awarding institution may be shown and it might be specified if a degree was at honours level, particularly where the honours degree is a separate qualification from the ordinary bachelor's degree.[22]
For member institutions of the
Confusion can result from universities sharing similar names, e.g. the University of York in the UK and York University in Canada or Newcastle University in the UK and the University of Newcastle in Australia. In this case, the convention is to include a country abbreviation with the university's name. For example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' or 'Newc (UK)' and 'Newc (Aus.) are commonly used to denote degrees conferred by these universities where the potential for confusion exists,[32] and institution names are given in this form in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook.[23]
Abbreviations used for degrees vary between countries and institutions, e.g. MS indicates Master of Science in the US and places following American usage, but Master of Surgery in the UK and most Commonwealth countries, where the standard abbreviation for Master of Science is MSc. Common abbreviations include BA and MA for Bachelor and Master of Arts, BS/BSc and MS/MSc for Bachelor and Master of Science, MD for Doctor of Medicine and PhD for Doctor of Philosophy.[33][34]
Online degree
An online degree is an academic degree (usually a college degree, but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely on a
Degree systems by regions
This section needs additional citations for verification. (July 2022) |
Asia
Bangladesh, India and Pakistan
Bangladesh and India mostly follow the colonial era British system for the classification of degrees,[36] however, Pakistan has recently switched[when?] to the US model of a two-year associate degree and a four-year bachelor's degree program. The arts, referring to the performing arts and literature, may confer a Bachelor of Arts (BA) and a Master of Arts (MA). Management degrees are also classified under 'arts' but are nowadays considered a separate stream, with degrees of Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Master of Business Administration (MBA). Science refers to the basic sciences and natural science (Biology, Physics, Chemistry, etc.); the corresponding degrees are Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Master of Science (MSc).
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, like many other commonwealth countries, follows the British system, but with its own distinctions. Degrees are approved by the University Grants Commission.[38]
Africa
Tunisia
Tunisia's educational grading system, ranging from elementary school to Ph.D. programs, operates on a scale of 0 to 20. The minimum score for passing is set at 10 out of 20. This numerical system exclusively evaluates a student's academic accomplishments, serving as the determinant for admission into advanced programs. For instance, a student's grades obtained for their bachelor's degree are considered when they apply for a Master's program. Level 4 courses, which include the first year of a Bachelor's program or a Higher National Certificate (HNC), may allow students to enter directly into the second year of a Bachelor's program, provided that the course they completed is the same as the one they are applying for.
South Africa
In South Africa, grades (also known as "marks") are presented as a percentage, with anything below 50% considered a failure. Students who receive a failing grade may have the opportunity to rewrite the exam, depending on the criteria established by their institution.
Degrees in almost any field of study can be pursued at one of the institutions in the country, with certain institutions being known for excelling in specific fields. Major fields of study across the country include
.The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)[39] has developed a credit-based system for degrees, with different levels of National Qualifications Framework (NQF) ratings corresponding to each degree level. For example, an undergraduate degree in Science is rated at NQF level 6, while an additional year of study in that discipline would result in an NQF level 8 (honours degree) rating.
Kenya
In Kenya, the first undergraduate degree is pursued after students have completed four years of secondary school education and attained at least a C+ (55-59%) on the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). Students pursuing a degree in engineering, such as B.Sc.
For students pursuing a master's degree, they must have completed an undergraduate degree and attained at least a second-class honours upper division (60-69%) or lower division plus at least two years of relevant experience. Most master's degree programs take two years to complete. In an engineering master's degree program, students are typically required to publish at least one
To pursue a doctor of philosophy degree, students must have completed a relevant master's degree. They are required to carry out a supervised scientific study for a minimum of three years and publish at least two scientific first-author papers in peer-reviewed journals relevant to their area of study.
Currently, Kenya is implementing a Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) that follows a 2-6-3-3 education system to replace the existing 8-4-4 system which allows confirmation of undergraduate degrees upon successful completion. The CBC system was introduced in 2017.[40][41]
Europe
Since the
The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) was formally established in 2010 and, as of September 2016, has 50 members.[42] The implementation of the various elements of the EHEA varies between countries. Twenty-four countries have fully implemented a national qualifications framework, and a further ten have a framework but have not yet certified it against the overarching framework. In 38 countries, ECTS credits are used for all higher education programmes, and 31 countries have fully implemented diploma supplements. Only 11 countries have included all the major points of the Lisbon Recognition Convention in national legislation.[43]
Since 2008, the European Union has been developing the European Qualifications Framework (EQF). This is an eight-level framework designed to allow cross-referencing of the various national qualifications frameworks. While it is not specific to higher education, the top four levels (5–8) correspond to the short cycle, first cycle, second cycle, and third cycle of the EHEA.[44][45]
Austria
In Austria, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees:
- the traditional two-cycle system of Magister/Diplom followed by the Doctorate, and
- the three cycle system of Bologna process.
The two-cycle degree system was phased out by 2010, with a few exceptions. However, some of the established degree naming has been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes.[46]
Belgium
While higher education is regulated by the three
In the first cycle, the Bachelor's degree is issued after 180 ECTS (3 years, EQF level 6). Other first cycle degrees include the one-year Advanced Bachelor's degree degree (French: Bachelier de spécialisation, lit. 'Specialized Bachelor'; Dutch: Bachelor-na-bachelor, lit. 'Bachelor-after-bachelor') and the Brevet (in the French-speaking Community only) for short-cycle higher education programmes.
Bachelor's degrees are followed in the second cycle (EQF level 7) by Master's degrees that last two years, completing an extra 120 ECTS credits. The master's degree can be followed by an Advanced Master's degree (French: Master de spécialisation, lit. 'Specialized Master'; Dutch: Master-na-master, lit. 'Master-after-master') that lasts one year (60 ECTS).
The third cycle of Belgium's higher education is covered by the Doctorate degree (French: Doctorat; Dutch: Doctoraat) that covers a 3-to-7-year-long PhD, depending on whether the doctoral student has teaching responsibilities in addition to conducting research or not (typically 6 years for teaching assistants and 4 years for research-only mandates).
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic has implemented the Bologna process, and functionally has three degrees: Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (4 years after Master).
The Czech Republic also has voluntary academic titles called "small doctorates" (e.g. RNDr. for natural sciences, PhDr. for philosophy, JUDr. for law etc.) which are achieved after passing an additional exam. Medical students do not get bachelor's or master's degrees, but instead attend a six year program and obligatory exam they achieve the title MUDr. (equivalent to MD degree in the United States of America)[clarification needed], or MDDr. for dentists and MVDr. for veterinary physicians. They can also get a "big doctorate" (Ph.D.) after another three or four years of study.
Bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and small doctorates in the form of letters (Bc., Mgr., Ing., ...) are listed before the person's name, and Doctor's degrees (Ph.D.) are listed after name (e.g. MUDr. Jan Novák, Ph.D.). The Czech Republic previously had more degrees that were awarded.[citation needed]
Denmark
Before the adoption of the Bologna Process, the lowest degree that would normally be studied at universities in Denmark was equivalent to a master's degree (kandidatgrad). Officially, a bachelor's degree was always obtained after 3 years' university studies.
Various medium-length (2–4 years) professional degrees have been adopted, so they now have status as professional bachelor's degrees of varying length. As opposed to academic bachelor's degrees, they are considered to be "applied" degrees. A professional bachelor's degree is 180, 210, or 240 ECTS-points.[47]
The academic degrees available at universities are:[47]
- bachelor i <field of study> (bachelor's degree = 180 ECTS-points)
- cand. <Latin abbreviation of field of study> (master's degree = 120 ECTS-points, except Medicine, which is 180 ECTS-points and Veterinary Medicine, which is 150 ECTS-points)
- ph.d. (PhD degree = normally 180 ECTS-points)
- dr. <Latin abbreviation of field of study> (higher doctoral degree = normally after a minimum of 5 years of individual and original research)
Finland
Historically, the Finnish higher education system is derived from the German system. The current system of higher education comprises two types of higher education institutions, the universities and the polytechnics, many of whom refer to themselves as universities of applied sciences (UAS).[48][49] With the exception of a few fields, such as medicine and dentistry, the Finnish system of higher education degrees is in compliance with the Bologna process. Universities award bachelor's degrees (kandidaatti / kandidat), Master's degrees (maisteri / magister) and doctoral degrees (lisensiaatin tutkinto / licentiat examen and tohtorin tutkinto / doktorexamen). In most fields, the system of doctoral degrees is two-tier, the degree of licentiate is an independent academic degree but completing the degree of doctor does not require completion of a licentiate degree. The polytechnics (universities of applied sciences) have the right to award bachelor's and master's degrees; the degree titles are distinct from the titles used for university degrees.
In general, students who are admitted to bachelor studies at a university have the right to continue to studies at master level. At polytechnics, the right to continue to master-level studies has to be applied for separately and there is also a work experience requirement. The majority of master's degree holders have graduated from university.
The degrees awarded by the universities and polytechnics are at par by law, but the content and orientation of studies is different. A master's degree obtained at a polytechnic gives the same academic right to continue studies at doctoral level as a master's degree obtained at a university.
France
Degree | Diploma | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Doctorate | Doctoral Diploma | |||||||||
Master | Universities | Écoles supérieures or Grandes écoles | ||||||||
General | Medical and Paramedical | Accounting | Art | Business | Engineering | Military | Public Affairs | Veterinary Science | Others | |
DESS (both diplomas phased out and no longer delivered) |
diplôme de formation approfondie ( Physiotherapy )
|
diplôme supérieur de comptabilité et de gestion[51] | Architect State Diploma Conservatoire de Paris[56]
|
Diplomas of the | Engineer's degree diplôme de management et contrôle du trafic aérien and diplôme d'ingénierie des systèmes électroniques de la sécurité aérienne of the École nationale de l'aviation civile[59][60] |
Diploma of the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr[61] | Diploma of an Institut d'études politiques
|
diplôme d'études fondamentales vétérinaires[50] | Some diplôme visé
Some diploma of specialized schools (Communication, Journalism, Film...) | |
Licence and bachelor | Licenciate's Diploma
|
diplôme de formation générale ( Ergotherapist State Diploma[63]
|
diplôme de comptabilité et de gestion[64] | diplôme d'études en architecture Conservatoire de Paris
|
Diploma of the École militaire interarmes[66] | Some diplôme visé
Some Diploma of specialized schools (Communication, Journalism, Film...) | ||||
Baccalaureate | Baccalauréat's Diploma |
The French national education system makes a distinction between a diplôme national ("national degree") and
Historically, academic degrees were orientated towards research, and the vocational education system awarded only diplomas. Since the implementation of the Bologna Process in France, the degree-granting system is being simplified: schools continue to grant their own diplomas, but the state's recognition in degree awarding is more important than before.
Diploma courses such as the University Bachelor of Technology's Diploma (bachelor universitaire de technologie; BUT) are recognised as "professionnal bachelor cycle" qualifications worth 180 ECTS credits; the Technologist's Certificate (brevet de technician supérieur; BTS) is now recognised as a "short cycle" qualification worth 120 ECTS credits, allowing progression from these to academic qualifications.[69] Nonetheless, there are diplomas in France with no degree recognition, e.g. specific diplomas designed by various institutions with no recognition from the Ministry of Education, such as the mastère spécialisé[70] or the Sciences Po Bachelor.
The recognised degrees are in three levels, following the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area. These are the licence (first level), master (second level) and doctorat (third level). All licence degrees take 3 years (180 ECTS credits) and all master's degrees take 2 years (120 ECTS credits). There are also 5-year (300 ECTS credits) engineer's degrees, which are master's degrees. In addition to the doctorate, which is always a research degree, the Diplôme d'Etat de docteur en médicine and the Diplôme d'Etat de docteur vétérinaire are third level qualifications and recognized as level 7 in EQF.[71]
Germany
Traditionally in Germany, students graduated after four-to-six years either with a
A special kind of examination is the
Since 1999, the traditional degrees have been replaced by
However, sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the Habilitation is a higher academic qualification—in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the Czech Republic—that grants a further teaching and research endorsement after a doctorate. It is earned by writing a second thesis (the Habilitationsschrift) or presenting a portfolio of first-author publications on an advanced topic. The exact requirements for satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities. The "habil.", as it is abbreviated, to indicate that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification for serving at least as a Privatdozent (e.g. "PD Dr. habil.") (senior lecturer) in an academic professorship. Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may still be given to applicants who have this credential in securing academic posts in the more traditional fields.
Greece
In Greece access to university is possible after national exams (Panhellenic Exams). The Greek academic degrees are:
- Ptychio (EQL Level 6 or bachelor's degree)
- Diploma (EQL Level 7 or Integrated master's degree)
- Metaptychiako Diploma Eidikefsis (EQL Level 7 or master's degree)
- Didaktoriko Diploma (EQL Level 8 or Doctorate)
Ireland
Ireland operates under a National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). The school-leaving qualification attained by students is called the Leaving Certificate. It is considered as Level 4–5 in the framework. This qualification is the traditional route of entry into third-level education. There are also Level 5 qualifications in certain vocational subjects (e.g. Level 5 Certificate in Restaurant Operations) awarded by the Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC). Advanced Certificates at Level 6 are also awarded by FETAC.
The Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC) awards the following: A
Italy
In Italy access to university is possible after gaining the Diploma di Maturità at 19 years of age, following 5 years of study in a specific high school focused on certain subjects (e.g. liceo classico focused on classical subjects, including philosophy, ancient Greek and Latin; liceo scientifico focused on scientific subjects such as maths, chemistry, biology and physics but also including philosophy, ancient Latin and Italian literature; liceo linguistico focused on foreign languages and literature; istituto tecnico focused on practical and theoretical subjects such as mechanics, aerospace, shipbuilding, electronics, computer science, telecommunications, chemistry, biology, fashion industry, food industry, building technology, law and economics). After gaining the diploma one can enter university and enrol in any curriculum (e.g. physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture): all high school diplomas allow access to any university curriculum, although most universities have pre-admission tests.
In 2011, Italy introduced a qualifications framework, known as the Quadro dei Titoli Italiani (QTI), which tied together, in a three-level system, both the new qualifications introduced as part of the Bologna Process and the older, pre-Bologna qualifications and which covers qualifications from university institutions and higher-education institutions for fine arts, music and dance (AFAM institutions).[76] In addition to academic degrees, many professional qualifications are tied to the QTI at the different levels.[77]
The first level, tied to the first cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the laurea (bachelor's degree) in universities and the Diploma accademico di primo livello in AFAM institutions.[78] The older qualifications that map to this level are the Diploma universitario and the Diploma di scuole dirette a fini speciali (SDAFS) from universities, and the Diploma di Conservatorio, Diploma di Istituto Musicale Pareggiato, Diploma dell'Accademia di Belle Arti, Diploma dell'Istituto Superiore delle Industrie Artistiche (ISIA), Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Danza and Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Arte Drammatica from AFAM institutions.[79] The laurea is obtained after three years of study (180 ECTS credits) and confers the academic title of dottore;[78] the older university qualifications at this level took two to three years, with the three-year courses conferring the title of dottore.[79]
The second level, tied to the second cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the laurea magistrale and the laurea specialistica of university institutions, and the Diploma accademico di secondo livello of AFAM institutions.[78] The old Diploma di laurea is mapped to this level.[79] The Laurea magistrale and the laurea specialistica are obtained after two further years of study (120 ECTS credits) and give the academic title of dottore magistrale.[78] The old Diploma di laurea took four to six years but was accessed directly from school, with a possible reduction by one year for those with a related diploma and also granted the title of dottore magistrale.[79]
The third level, tied to the third cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the Dottorato di ricerca from university institutions and the Diploma accademico di formazione alla ricerca from AFAM institutions.[78] The old Dottorato di ricerca and Diploma di specializzazione are tied to this level.[79] The Dottorato di ricerca, under both new and old systems, takes a minimum of three years after the laurea magistralie/specialistica, and gives the academic titles of Dottore di Ricerca (Dott. Ric.) and PhD.[78][79] The old Diploma di specializzazione took two to six years and gave the academic title of Specialista.[79]
Universities in Italy offer a number of other qualifications, including the Master universitario di primo livello (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 2nd cycle qualification) and the Master universitario di secondo livello (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 3rd cycle qualification), continuing from the laurea and the laurea magistrale/specialistica, respectively. These do not give access to the PhD. The Diploma di specializzazione, which is offered in a few specific professions, takes two to six years and gives the title of specialista. The Diploma di perfezionamento is a university certificate, aimed at professional training or in specific fields of study, which usually takes one year; it is not allocated a level in the framework.[80]
AFAM institutions may offer the Diploma di perfezionamento o Master and Diploma accademico di specializzazione. These are one-year and two-year qualifications, respectively, and may be offered at the second cycle or third cycle level, distinguished by adding (I) or (II) after the qualification name. Higher schools for language mediators offer the Diploma di mediatore linguistico, a first-cycle degree that takes three years (180 ECTS credits), and which gives access to the laurea specialistica. Specialisation institutes/schools in psychoterapy offer the Diploma di specializzazione in psicoterapia, a third-cycle qualification that takes at least four years and requires a laurea magistrale/specialistica in either psychology or medicine and surgery, along with professional registration.[80]
Netherlands
In the
Admission
In order for a Dutch student to get access to a university education, the student must complete a six-year pre-university secondary education called voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs (VWO). There are other routes possible, but only if the educational level of the applicant is comparable to that at the end of the standard two levels is access to university education granted. For some studies, specific end levels or disciplines are required, e.g., graduating without having studied physics, biology and chemistry will make it impossible to study medicine. People 21 years old, or older, who do not have the required entrance diplomas, may opt for an entrance exam to be admitted to a higher-educational curriculum. In this exam, they have to prove their command of disciplines considered necessary for pursuing such study. After 1 September 2002, they would be thus admitted to a Bachelor's curriculum, not to a Master's curriculum.
For some disciplines[81][82] in the Netherlands, a governmentally determined limited access is in place (although under political review for abolishment, as of February 2011).[83] This limits the number of applicants to a specific course of study, thus trying to control the number of future graduates. The disciplines most renowned for their numerus clausus are medicine and dentistry. Every year a combination of the highest pre-university graduation grades and some additional conditions determine who can start such a numerus clausus course of study and who can not.
Almost all
Pre-Bologna phases
This section needs additional citations for verification. (July 2022) |
Before the introduction of the bachelor-master structure, almost all academic studies in the Netherlands had the same length of four years and had two phases:
- The "propedeutische fase" (1–2 years): After finishing this phase, a student can follow another two years' study, which grants equivalents to the Anglo-Saxon BSc (Bachelor of Science), BA (Bachelor of Arts) or LLB (Bachelor of Laws).
- The "doctorale fase" (3–4 years): Completing the first phase successfully gives the student access to the second phase. Again, failure to finish within the time given will lead to discontinuation. This phase is concluded with the "doctoraal examen" (doctoral exam). This is not similar to any type of doctoral exam that would grant the student with any type of PhD title. Successful completion, however, does grant the student the Dutch degree of "drs." "doctorandus", ir. ("ingenieur" – engineer) or "mr." ("Meester in de rechten" – master of law). Nowadays these Dutch titles have been largely replaced by the Anglo Saxon titles MSc (Master of Science), MA (Master of Arts) and LLM (Master of Laws), depending on the area of study.
For medical students the "
In the Netherlands, there is the informal title dokter for physicians, but not doctor (dr.), unless they also earn such adegree by completing a PhD curriculum. Furthermore, the doctorandus degree does not give a medical student the right to treat patients; for this a minimum of two years of additional study (internship) is required. After obtaining a Medical Board registration, Dutch physicians must work an additional two to six years in a field of expertise to become a registered medical specialist. Dutch surgeons commonly are only granted access to surgical training and positions after obtaining a doctorate (PhD) successfully. In recent years, the six-year (nominal time) old Curius curriculum (which offered the titles doctorandus and physician) has been replaced with a three-year (nominal time) Bachelor Curius+ followed by a three-year (nominal time) Master Curius+. Those who had already begun their old-style Curius curriculum before that will still have to complete it as a six-year study (nominal time).
A
After successfully obtaining a "drs.", "ir." or "mr." degree, a student has the opportunity to follow a further, promotional course of study (informally called PhD) to eventually obtain a doctorate and subsequently the title "doctor". Promotion studies are ideally structured according to a preset time schedule of 4 to 6 years, during which the student has to be mentored by at least one professor. The promotion study has to be concluded with at least a scientific thesis, which has to be defended to "a gathering of his/her peers", in practice the board of the faculty with guest professors from other faculties or universities added. More and more common—and, in some disciplines, even mandatory—is that the student write, and have accepted for publication by peer-reviewed journals, original scientific work. The number of publications required is often debated and varies considerably between the various disciplines. However, in all disciplines the student is obligated to produce and publish a dissertation or thesis in book form.
Bachelor/master structure
All current Dutch academic programs are offered under the Anglo-Saxon bachelor/master structure. It takes three years to earn a bachelor's degree and another one or two years to earn a master's degree. There are three official academic bachelor titles (BA, BSc and LLB) and three official master titles (MA, MSc and LLM). These academic titles are protected by the Dutch government.
Using academic titles
After obtaining a doctorate, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before, or the letter D following, their name, but not both simultaneously.[84] There is no notation signifying the specific discipline in which the doctorate is obtained. As of 1 January 2021, the title 'PhD' and post-nominal degree 'PhD' can also be used, and these are also legally protected. Stacking of titles, as seen in countries such as Germany (Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Gruber), is highly uncommon in the Netherlands and not well received culturally. Those who have multiple doctoral titles may use dr.mult. before their name, but this is seldom seen in practice.[84] The honoris causa doctors may use dr.h.c. before their name.[84] Combining different Dutch titles, especially in different disciplines, is allowed, however, (e.g. mr. dr. Jansen, dr. mr. Jansen, dr. ir. Jansen, mr. ir. drs. Jansen, mr. ir. Jansen). The use of the combination ir. ing. is frequent, indicating one holds a HBO, vocational, or professional engineering degree, together with an academic engineering degree.[85] What is not allowed is, after obtaining a doctorate, using dr. drs. Jansen; dr. Jansen should be used instead. A combination of a Dutch title with an international title is not allowed, except for some limited number of international professional titles.[85] Thus, one should choose either one's classical Dutch title or use the shortcut provided by the law following one's name (since 1 September 2002 it is the other way around: those who hold Dutch degrees as MSc, LLM or MA may optionally use the old-style shortcuts before their names).[85][86]
"Doctors" (dr.) can proceed to teach at universities as "universitair docent" (UD – assistant professor). With time, experience and achievement, this can evolve to a position as "universitair hoofddocent" (UHD – associate professor). Officially an UHD still works under the supervision of a "hoogleraar" (professor), the head of the department. However, this is not a given; it is also possible that a department is headed by a "plain" doctor, based on knowledge, achievement and expertise. The position of "hoogleraar" is the highest possible scientific position at a university and equivalent to the US "full" professor. The Dutch professor's title, noted as prof. Jansen or professor Jansen, is connected to one's employment. This means that, should the professor leave the university, he or she also loses the privilege to use the title of professor. Retired professors are an exception and may continue to note the title in front of their name, or use the title emeritus professor (em. prof.). People who switch to a non-university job lose their professorial title and are only allowed to use the "dr." abbreviation.
Unlike some other European countries, such as Germany, Dutch academic titles are used rarely outside academia, hold no value in everyday life, and typically are not listed on official documentation (e.g. passport, drivers license, (governmental) communication). Dutch academic titles, however, are legally protected and can only be used by graduates from Dutch institutions of higher education. Illegal use is considered a misdemeanor and is subject to legal prosecution.[87][88] Holders of foreign degrees, therefore, need special permission before being able to use a recognised Dutch title, but they are free to use their own foreign title (untranslated).[89][90][91][92] In practice, the Public Department does not prosecute the illegal use of a protected title (the Netherlands applies prosecutorial discretion, so some known criminal uses are not prosecuted).[93]
Norway
Prior to 1980, there were around 50 different degrees and corresponding educational programs within the Norwegian higher education system. Degrees had titles that included the gender based Latin term candidatus/candidata. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding to the profession or training. For example, Cand. Mag. (Candidatus Magisterii) required 4 to 5 years, Cand. Real.[94] (Candidatus Realium) required 6 years of study and a scientific thesis in a select set of scientific disciplines (realia). Over the years these were replaced gradually with degrees that were more and more internationally comparable programs and corresponding titles. For example, the degree Cand. Scient. replaced Cand. Real. in the period 1985 to 2003. These degrees were all retired in 2003 in favour of an international system.
The reform of higher education in Norway, Kvalitetsreformen ("The Quality Reform"), was passed in the Norwegian Parliament, the
Poland
In Poland, the system is similar to the German one.
- licencjat title – given by a university; the equivalent of Bachelor of Arts degree or Bachelor of Science degree (depending on academic major); granted after at least 3 years of study.
- inżynier (inż.) title – technical university; granted after at least about 3.5 years of study.
- magister (mgr) title – the equivalent of a Honours Degree.
- magister inżynier (mgr inż.) title – the equivalent of a Master of Engineering, granted after about 2 years of additional study by holders of a degree of Bachelor of Engineering.
- doktor (dr) degree – the equivalent of Doctor of Philosophy.
- doktor habilitowany (dr hab.) degree – Polish Habilitation degree, requires approval by an external ministerial body.
- profesor (prof.) degree – the highest title, officially conferred by the president of Poland.
Russia, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics
Since 1992, Russian higher education has introduced a multilevel system, enabling higher education institutions to award and issue Bachelor of Science and Master of Science degrees.[95]
In
- A bachelor's degree usually takes 4 years of college (minimum level to be recognized as having a higher education).
- A specialist degree is awarded after 5 years of college (4 + 1).
- A Master's (Magister) degree is awarded after 6 years of college (4 + 2).[97]
But a Specialist degree can appear equivalent to Magister degree by reason of taking an equivalent amount of time. Usually Specialist or Magister degrees incorporate the bachelor's degrees in them, but only the high-level degree is given on the final diploma. Specialist and Magister degrees require taking final state exams and producing written work on practical application of studied skills or research thesis (usually 70–100 pages) and is roughly equivalent to a master's degree.[98]
The first-level academic degree is called
Finally, there is a
In countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of Kandidat Nauk should be considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree. According to Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other countries,[99] in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of Doktor Nauk should be considered for recognition at the level of the second doctoral degree. In countries in which only one doctoral degree exists, the degree of Doktor Nauk should be considered for recognition at the level of this degree.
According to International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) UNESCO 2011,[100] par.262, for purposes of international educational statistics:
- DPhil to Kandidat Nauk/Philosophy;
- D.Lit. to Kandidat Nauk in Literature;
- D.Sc. to Kandidat Nauk of Natural Science;
- LL.D. to Kandidat Nauk of Legal Science.
Spain
Spain's higher-education legal framework includes official and accredited education, as well as non-official education.
1.1 Official and accredited education
In Spain, accreditation of official university study programmes is regulated by law and monitored by governmental agencies responsible for verifying their quality and suitability for official approval and accreditation.
Official professional study programmes lead to degree qualifications (Títulos) with full academic and professional rights. The degrees awarded in accordance with the latest higher-education system are:
1. Bachelor's Degree (Grado) – 240 ECTS Credits in 4 years.
2. Master's Degree (Master Universitario) – 60 to 120 ECTS Credits in 1–2 years.
3. Doctoral degree PhD (Doctorado) – in 3–4 years.
Accredited bachelor's degrees and master's degrees qualifications will always be described as Grado and Master Universitario. These qualifications comply with the European Higher Education Area (EHEA)[101] framework. Officially approved and accredited university study programmes by law must implement this framework in order to attain and retain accreditation in Spain.
1.2 Non-official education
Not all EHEA-compliant study programmes in Spain are officially approved or accredited by government agencies. Some universities offer proprietary study programmes as alternatives for a variety of reasons: serving the continuing education market for individual self-advancement and also providing higher education to individuals who have failed to acquire bachelor's degree qualifications. The main reason for offering these alternative studies, though, is the complex bureaucratic process required to receive the approval of specific titles, in particular when it refers to new studies or studies about matters that do not fit with the official studies. For historical reasons, the academic system has been very much under the control of the state, and private universities are still regarded with as a threat to the state system.
These programmes fall within the category of "non officially approved and accredited" or estudios no oficiales, and they confer no academic or professional rights. This means that they do not entitle the bearer to claim to have any specific academic or professional qualifications, as far as the Spanish authorities are concerned. However, there may be private agreements to recognize the titles.
Universities offering non-official study programmes are legally bound to clearly differentiate between officially-approved and non-officially-approved qualifications. Non-accredited master's degrees will be described as just Master, without the accompanying Universitario.
Certain non-officially approved and accredited study programmes may acquire a positive reputation. However, neither professional associations, government agencies, judiciary authorities, nor universities – other than the study programme provider – are obliged to recognize non-official qualifications in any way.
2. Accreditation system
University-taught study programme accreditation is granted through the National Agency for Quality Assessment and Accreditation (ANECA),[102] a government-dependent quality assurance and accreditation provider for the Spanish higher education system that ensures that the data held in the Register of Universities, Centres and Qualifications (RUCT),[103] a national registry for universities and qualifications, is correct and up to date. All study programmes must be accredited by ANECA[102] prior to their inclusion in the RUCT.[103] The RUCT[103] records all officially approved universities and their bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and PhDs and each and every one of the officially approved and accredited study programmes. Universities are assigned a specific number Code (Código) by the RUCT. The same study programme may acquire different codes as it progresses through various stages of official approval by local and central governments.
Prospective students should check the RUCT Code awarded to the study programme of their interest at every stage of their enquiries concerning degrees in Spain.[103]
ANECA makes recommendations regarding procedures, staffing levels, quality of teaching, resources available to students and continuity or loss of accreditation. The ANECA Registry[104] records all events in the life of an officially approved and accredited study programme or a university. The ANECA Registry Search Facility[105] may be the simplest and safest way to verify the status of all officially approved and accredited study programmes in Spain.
It is also possible to track qualifications by using the search facility that several Autonomous Communities' own accreditation agencies offer. These agencies work within the ANECA framework and generally show more detailed information about the study programmes available in each territory (e.g., Catalonia, Madrid, etc.)
3. Qualifications framework for higher education
The qualifications framework for higher education MECES is the reference framework adopted in Spain in order to structure degree levels.
Not all universities offer degrees named exactly the same, even if they have similar academic and professional effects. Each university may present proposals for the study programme considered to meet professional and academic demand. The proposal will consist of a report linking the study programme being considered and the proposed qualification to be awarded. This report will be assessed by ANECA and sent for the Consejo de Universidades Españolas.[106] If the Consejo agrees with ANECA's approval, it will be included in the RUCT and ANECA registries.
4. Spanish qualifications and their professional effects.
All bachelor's and master's degrees accredited by ANECA bestow full academic and professional rights in accordance with new and previous laws. Professional-practice law in Spain is currently under revision.
Sweden
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008) |
Switzerland
Before the Bologna Process, the academic degree of a Licentiate was reached after 4 or 5 years of study.[107] Depending on the official language of the university, it was called Lizentiat (German), Licence (French) or licenza (Italian) and, according to the Bologna reform, is today considered equivalent to a master's degree.[108] A Licentiate with a predefined qualification gave access to the last stage of a further two or more years of studies (depending on the field) for a doctoral degree.
Apart from this, most universities offered a
United Kingdom
England, Wales and Northern Ireland
An academic degree is protected under UK law. All valid UK degrees are awarded by universities or other degree-awarding bodies whose powers to do so are recognised by the UK government; hence they are known as "recognised bodies".[110]
The standard first degree in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is the bachelor's degree conferred with honours. Usually this is a Bachelor of Arts (BA) or a Bachelor of Science (BSc) degree. Other variants exist: for example, Bachelor of Education or Bachelor of Laws. It usually takes three years to read for a bachelor's degree.
The honours are usually categorised into four classes:
- First class honours (1st).
- Second class honours, divided into:
- Upper division or upper second (2:1).
- Lower division or lower second (2:2).
- Third class honours (3rd).[111]
Candidates who have not achieved the standard for the award of honours may be admitted without honours to the "ordinary" bachelor's degree if they have met the required standard for this lesser qualification (also referred to as a "pass degree"). Standard levels for each of these classes are 70%+ for a first, 60-69% for a 2:1, 50-59% for a 2:2, 40-49% for a 3rd and 30%+ for a pass degree, although this can vary by institution (e.g. the Open University).[112]
The foundation degree[113] is a qualification, lower than bachelor's level, awarded following a two-year programme of study that is usually vocational in nature. The foundation degree can be awarded by a university or college of higher education that has been granted foundation-degree-awarding powers by the UK government. This degree is comparable to an associate degree in the United States.
The universities of Oxford and Cambridge award honorary Master of Arts (MA) degrees to graduates of their bachelor's programmes, following a specified period of time. This is comparable to the practice of the ancient universities in Scotland awarding an MA for a first degree and arguably reflects the rigorous standards expected of their graduates.
Some universities award a master's as a first degree following an integrated programme of study (an 'integrated master's degree'). These degrees are usually designated by the subject, such as Master of Engineering for engineering, Master of Physics for physics, Master of Mathematics for mathematics and so on; it usually takes four years to read for them. Graduation to these degrees is always with honours. Master of Engineering in particular has now become the standard first degree in engineering at the top UK universities, replacing the older Bachelor of Engineering.
Master's degrees are often graded as:
- Distinction
- Merit
- Pass
The Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree is highly valued by those seeking to advance in business as managers and decision makers.
Doctoral degrees or doctorates,[115] such as the Doctor of Philosophy degree (PhD or DPhil) or Doctor of Education (EdD or DEd), are awarded following a programme of original research that contributes new knowledge within the context of the student's discipline. Doctoral degrees usually take three years full-time. Therefore, in the UK it may only take seven years to progress from undergraduate to earning a doctorate – in some cases six, since having a master's is not always a precondition for embarking on a doctoral degree. This contrasts with nine years in the United States, reflecting differences in the educational systems.
Some doctorates, such as the Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) qualification, confirm competence to practice in particular professions. There are also higher doctorates – Doctor of Science (DSc) and Doctor of Letters/Literature (DLitt) — that are typically awarded to experienced academics who have demonstrated a high level of achievement in their academic career; for example, they may have published widely on their subject or become professors in their fields.
UK post-secondary qualifications are defined at different levels, with levels 1–3 denoting further education and levels 4–8 denoting higher education. Within this structure, a foundation degree is at level 5; a bachelor's degree at level 6; a master's degree at level 7; and a doctoral degree at level 8.[116] Full information about the expectations for different types of UK degrees is published by the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education.[117]
See also graduate certificate, graduate diploma, postgraduate certificate, postgraduate diploma and British degree abbreviations.
Scotland
The standard
Students can work towards a first degree at either ordinary or honours level. A general or ordinary degree (BA/MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (BA/MA Hons or BSc Hons) takes four years. The ordinary degree need not be in a specific subject, but can involve study across a range of subjects within (and sometimes beyond) the relevant faculty, in which case it may also be called a general degree. If a third year or junior honours subject is included, the ordinary degree in that named discipline is awarded. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied and then two years of study at honours level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc.). Not all universities in Scotland adhere to this; in some, one studies in several subjects within a faculty for three years and can then specialise in two areas and attain a joint honours degree in fourth year.
This also reflects the broader scope of the final years of
Honours for MA or bachelor's degrees are classified into three classes:
- First class honours
- Second class honours, divided into:
- Division one (2:1) [Upper Second Class Honours]
- Division two (2:2) [Lower Second Class Honours]
- Third class honours
Students who complete all the requirements for an honours degree, but who do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded third-class honours, may be awarded a Special Degree (ordinary degree – bachelor's level SCQF Level 9).
In most respects, the criteria for awarding qualifications at honours level and above are the same as in the rest of the UK (see above under England, Wales and Northern Ireland). Postgraduate qualifications are not designated Master of Arts, as in the rest of the UK, as this is an undergraduate degree. Postgraduate degrees in arts and humanities subjects are usually designated Master of Letters (M.Litt.) or, in natural and social sciences, Master of Science (M.Sc.). Non-doctoral postgraduate research degrees are usually designated Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) or Master of Research (M.Res.). The postgraduate teaching qualification is the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE).
Postgraduate qualifications are classified into four classes:
- Distinction
- Credit
- Merit
- Pass
North America
Canada
In Canada, education is the responsibility of the provinces and territories, rather than the federal government. However, all of Canada follows the three-level bachelor's-master's-doctorate system common to the Anglophone world, with a few variations. A common framework for degrees was agreed between the provinces and territories in 2007.[119]
Bachelor's degrees take normally three to four years, more commonly three years in Quebec (where they follow on from college courses rather than directly from secondary education). Outside Quebec, three-year bachelor's degrees are normally ordinary degrees, while four-year bachelor's degrees are honours degrees; an honours degree is normally needed for further study at the master's level.[120] Master's degrees take one to three years (in Quebec they normally take one and a half to two years). Doctorates take a minimum of three years. Alone among Canadian provinces and territories, British Columbia offers two-year associate degrees, allowing credit to be transferred into a four-year bachelor's program.[121]
In Canada,
Quebec
In the province of Quebec, the majority of students must attend college prior to entering university. Upon completion of a two-year pre-university program, such as in sciences or humanities, or a three-year technical program, such as nursing or computer science, college graduates obtain a college diploma, which is a prerequisite for access to university-level studies. Although these college programs are typical, they are not offered in every institution in the province. Moreover, while a few other pre-university programs with various concentrations exist, many other technical/career programs are available, depending on the college of choice. For example, Dawson College in Montreal has nearly sixty different programs leading to a college diploma.
Special programs, such as
- a "medical preparatory" year at McGill University or Université de Montréal and then pursue medical studies for the following four years;
- directly into the undergraduate medical education program at Université Laval (4 to 5 years in duration) or Université de Sherbrooke (4 years in duration).
Mexico
Education in
After receiving the licenciatura, students may take extra courses called diplomados (similar to a certification but issued by a university). These courses last 4–12 months and are a means to further study without continuing to the next degree level, and are usually to demonstrate that students are staying up-to-date in their fields. Most students stay at this level, but some choose to continue to the maestría, equivalent to the master's degree. Study at the maestría level takes 1–3 years and mandates completion of a thesis. Post-graduate students in Mexico typically enter a master's program after a few years in the workforce and often continue working while studying.
Traditionally, students who have completed the maestria may continue on to the doctorado or the doctorate. Doctoral study typically lasts 3–4 years. In recent years this schemes has become flexible such that in some PhD programmes, students are accepted before, or not completing, the course of study for a master's.
United States
In the United States, since the late 19th century, the threefold degree system of bachelor's, master's, and doctorate has been in place but has evolved into a slightly different pattern from the European equivalent. The
The standard academic progression remains bachelor's—master's—(research) doctorate. Most standard academic programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree, most often Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) or Bachelor of Science (B.S.), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often Master of Arts (M.A.) or Master of Science (M.S.); either of these programs might be as long as three years in length) and a further two to five years of coursework and research, culminating in "comprehensive" examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate, for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level or even an additional degree at a level already completed. Therefore, there is no time limit on the accumulation of academic degrees.
By far the most common research doctorate is the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), comprising 98.1% of research doctorates in 2014. The Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) made up 1.1% (not including Ed.D.s classified as professional degrees rather than research doctorates) and all other research doctorates were less than 1% in total.[130][131][132]
Some schools, mostly junior colleges and community colleges and some four-year schools, offer an associate degree that takes two full years of study. These may be in professional or academic fields, and the most common awards are the Associate of Arts (A.A.) and Associate of Science (A.S.) degrees. Articulation agreements may allow credit earned on an associate degree to be counted toward the completion of a bachelor's degree.[133]
The "
Intermediate graduate qualifications lie between the master's level and doctorate. They include awards such as the
In 21 US jurisdictions, religious institutions can be authorized to grant religious-exempt (rel. exmpt., rel. expt., etc.) degrees without accreditation or government oversight.[138] Such degrees are used primarily to attain church-related employment.[139]
Current levels of attainment of degrees
Traditionally, more men than women attended and earned degrees at the world's universities. A milestone was reached in the United States, according to the 2010 census, as women surpassed men in attaining master's degrees, for the first time.[140] The U.S. census reports that 10.5 million men have master's degrees or higher, compared with 10.6 million women. The first year that women surpassed men in earning bachelor's degrees was 1996.[141]
Perceptions of the value of a degree in the US
Students, the media, and the general public have shown much concern over the value of getting a higher degree in the US ever since the Great Recession of 2007. A 2015 survey of 2,000 adults (900 of which were graduates), implemented by the education technology company Greenwood Hall, reported that more than half of the graduates surveyed believe those getting their degree now will be receiving a lower return on their investment than their counterparts 10–15 years ago.[142][needs update]
Media coverage of the rising costs of higher education and increased student debt have also affected the public's perceptions of whether higher degrees are still worthwhile. Statistics citing that college graduates make around $1 million more in their lifetimes than those who did not attend college and live longer, healthier lives work in favor of those who argue the continued value of higher degrees.[142] Studies like the 2011 Learning Gains study by Arum and Roksa, on the other hand, reported that only 55% of students had any learning gains during their first two years of college, which favors the argument that investing in higher education may not still be worth it.[143]
Oceania
Australia
The
Categories of honours degrees are:
- First Class Honours (H1 or I; overall mark of 80% and above);
- Second Class Honours – A Division (H2A or IIA; overall mark of 74% to 79%);
- Second Class Honours – B Division (H2B or IIB; overall mark of 70% to 74%);
- Third Class Honours (H3 or III; overall mark of 65% to 69%).
Lower marks do not qualify for honours, but yield a bachelor's degree at:
- Pass (P: overall mark of 50% to 64%);
- Fail (N or Failed: overall mark of 49% and below).[146]
Doctorates in Australia may be research doctorates (normally titled
New Zealand
Like Australia, New Zealand has a 10-level qualifications framework (the New Zealand Qualifications Framework – NZQF) and a referencing exercise has found a one-to-one correspondence between the levels of the two frameworks.[147] However, the names given to qualifications at different levels are not the same and New Zealand does not have associate degrees, thus only levels 7–10 correspond to academic degrees. These are the bachelor's degree (level 7), bachelor honours degree (level 8), master's degree (level 9) and the doctoral degree (level 10). In addition to these, the NZQF has certificates across levels 1–6, diplomas at levels 5 and 6, graduate certificates and graduate diplomas at level 7 (bachelor's), and postgraduate certificates and postgraduate diplomas at level 8 (honours).[148] Another referencing exercise, comparing the NZQF to the 10-level Irish National Framework for Qualifications, found that degrees were comparable but that further work was needed to improve compatibility at the sub-degree levels (1–6). Non-degree qualifications at levels 7–9 were not included in the study.[149] In New Zealand, master's degrees may be awarded with classified honours (1st, 2:1, 2:2, 3rd) or with distinction or merit.[150]
South America
Argentina
Brazil
Undergraduate students in Brazilian universities graduate either with a bachelor's degree, a licentiate degree or a technologist degree. Bachelor degrees in Brazil normally take four or five years of full-time study to complete, with the exception of the human medicine course, which requires six years. Licentiate degrees normally take four-years, and are for students who want to qualify as school teachers. Licenciatura courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities and natural sciences. The technologist degree is available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three years. These degrees are for entry into industry.
Admission as an undergraduate student to most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as the
Individuals who hold either a bachelor's degree, licentiate or technologist are eligible for admission into
There are two types of post-graduate programs: lato sensu (specialization and MBAs) and stricto sensu (professional master's, master's, and doctorate).
Specializations or MBAs are courses that include taking a minimum number of graduate classes (minimum of 360 hours) but with no need to do research nor defend a thesis, only to present final work showing knowledge acquired. It is a professional level where theory and practice are focused broadly.
Professional master's or master's degrees usually take one to two years of full-time study. Requirements for an academic master's degree include taking a minimum number of advanced graduate classes (typically between five and eight) and submitting a research thesis, which is examined orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one member from another university or research institute. The emphasis of the thesis must be in adding some value to knowledge, but not necessarily in being original.
Doctoral degrees normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete. Requirements for obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related. That contrasts with master's thesis, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of São Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one or two external examiners from another university or research institute.
Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of São Paulo, still award the title of Livre-Docente (free docent), which is of higher standing than a doctorate and is obtained, similar to the German Habilitation, by the submission of a second (original or cumulative) thesis and approval in a Livre-Docência examination that includes giving a public lecture before a panel of full professors.
See also
Colombia
In Colombia, the system of academic degrees is based in the British model, similar to the U.S. model. After completing their "bachillerato" (high school), students can take one of three options. The first one is called a profesional (professional career), which is similar to a bachelor's degree requiring from four to 6 years of study according to the chosen program. The other option is called a técnico (technician); this degree consists of two and a half years of study and prepares the student for technical or mechanical labors. Finally, the third option is called a tecnólogo (equivalent to associate degree) and consists of three years of study.
After this, students, now called profesional (professionals), técnicos (technicians) or tecnólogos (associates), can opt for higher degrees. Formal education after the bachelor's degree leads to the master's degree with the title of maestro and doctorate degrees, known as doctorado (doctorate). The master's degree normally takes two years.
Students also can take a specialization course, especialización, equivalent to a graduate certificate degree, after their bachelor's degree. These programs, like in the U.S., are very popular, because it requires only one to two years of study.
In Colombia, similar to the U.S. system, the students may not go directly to the doctorado without having the "master" degree first.
Chile
After completing enseñanza media (high school), students receive a Licenciatura de Enseñanza Media (high school diploma), which is a requirement for higher education.
In Chile, there is a distinction between academic degrees and professional titles:
- Grado académico is the denomination given to an academic degree granted by a higher education institution recognized by the Chilean Mineduc (Ministry of Education).
- Titulo profesional is the denomination given to a professional title. Some professional titles are required for occupations such as physicians, attorneys and as civil/commercial engineers. A professional title may or may not require a grado académico, additional examination or work experience. For example, the abogado (attorney) professional title is granted by the Chilean Supreme Court and requires an examination, academic degree and 6 months of pro-bono work experience.
Among grado académico degrees, there are the following levels:
- Bachiller, undergraduate degree obtained by completing a 2-year bachillerato.
- Licenciado, undergraduate degree obtained as a 4+ year licenciatura. Equivalent to a bachelor's degree.
- Magister, graduate degree, requiring a licenciado degree or equivalent. Equivalent to a master's degree.
- Doctorado, a doctoral degree, often requiring a magister degree or equivalent.
Higher-education programs that provide a professional title but not an academic degree are referred to as carreras técnicas, which are similar in duration and scope to associate degree programs. These are often granted by educational institutions of the type instituto profesional (IP) or centro de formación técnica (CFT).
Venezuela
Academic degrees in Venezuela start with the Certificado de Educación Básica (Certificate of Basic Education), awarded upon completing the 9th grade. The next degree is earned upon completing the 11th grade and confers the title of Bachiller en Ciencias (High School Graduate of Science), Bachiller en Humanidades (High School Graduate of Humanities) or Técnico en Ciencias (Science Technician). The reason for this diversity is because some schools provide vocational education as part of their high school curriculum (thereby allowing them to hand out "technician" titles), while elsewhere the student is required to decide whether to study science or the humanities for the last two years of secondary school.
Titles at the higher-education level usually depend on the institution handing them out. Technical schools award the student with the title of Técnico Superior Universitario (university higher technician, to distinguish from science technician). Universities award the student with the title of ingeniero (engineer) or with the title licenciado (licentiate) after completing a five-year program. The ingeniero degree requires more physics than the licenciado degree, but both take five years. Some higher-education institutions may award diplomados (diploma), but the time necessary to obtain one varies. Medical doctors are awarded the title "Médico Cirujano" after completing a 6-year course of study.
Postgraduate education in Venezuela follows the conventions of the United States (being named "master's" and "doctorate" after the programs there).
Pontifical universities
In distinction to secular or Catholic universities, which are academic institutions for the study and teaching of a broad range of disciplines, ecclesiastical or pontifical universities "are usually composed of three principal ecclesiastical faculties: theology, philosophy, and canon law, as well as at least one other faculty. A pontifical university specifically addresses Christian revelation and disciplines correlative to the evangelical mission of the Church as set out in Sapientia christiana."[152][153]
The core of degrees granted by pontifical universities consists of three levels: the first is the baccalaureate; the second is the licentiate; the third is the doctorate. From this core pontifical universities confer specific degrees, including:
Theology
- Baccalaureate in Sacred Theology, Sacrae Theologiae Baccalaureatus (S.T.B.)
- Licentiate in Sacred Theology, Sacrae Theologiae Licentiatus (S.T.L.)
- Doctorate in Sacred Theology, Sacrae Theologiae Doctoratus (S.T.D.)
Philosophy
- Baccalaureate in Philosophy, Philosophiae Baccalaureatus (Ph.B.)
- Licentiate in Philosophy, Philosophiae Licentiatus (Ph.L.)
- Doctorate in Philosophy, Philosophiae Doctoratus (Ph.D.)
Canon Law
- Baccalaureate in Canon Law, Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus (J.C.B.)
- Licentiate in Canon Law, Juris Canonici Licentiatus (J.C.L.)
- Doctorate in Canon Law, Juris Canonici Doctoratus (J.C.D.)
See also
- Academic Awards in Spain
- Academic Inflation
- Academic stole
- Ad eundem degree
- Degrees of the University of Oxford
- Degrees offered by unaccredited institutions of higher education
- Educational devaluation
- External degree
- Higher education
- Honorary degree
- Lambeth degree
- Lisbon Recognition Convention
- List of fields of doctoral studies
- Pontifical university
- Postgraduate education
- Thesis
- Validation of foreign studies and degrees
References
- ^ a b Verger, J. (1998). "Doctor, doctoratus". Lexikon des Mittelalters [Lexicon of the Middle Ages] (in German). Vol. 3. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler.
- ^ a b c Verger, J. (1999). "Licentia". Lexikon des Mittelalters [Lexicon of the Middle Ages] (in German). Vol. 5. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler.
- ^ "Academic Degree". K12academics.com. 6 February 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "Origin of the Bachelor's, Master's and Doctorate". Academicapparel.com. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- JSTOR 604423
- ^ S2CID 144509355.
In the 1930s, the renowned Orientalist Alfred Guillaume noted strong resemblances between Muslim and Western Christian institutions of higher learning. An example he cited is the ijazah, which he recognized as being akin to the medieval licentia docendi, the precursor of the modern university degree.
- ISBN 9781135455965.
The license to teach law and issue legal opinions [...] is the type of ijazah that resembles the medieval European university degree most closely [...] The main difference between the two is that the granting authority is an individual professor, in the Islamic case, rather than a corporate institution in the case of the university. Despite this point, Makdisi has likened the ijazat al-ifta' wa'l-tadris to the medieval Latin licentia docendi and suggests that it served as a model for that degree.
- ISBN 978-0521529945.
It remains the case that no equivalent of the bachelor's degree, the licentia docendi, or higher degrees ever emerged in the medieval or early modern Islamic madrasas.
- ^ Verger, J. (1999), "Doctor, doctoratus", Lexikon des Mittelalters, vol. 3, Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, cols 1155–1156
- ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. XIX: "No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master's degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world."
- ^ Norman Daniel: Review of "The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West by George Makdisi", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 104, No. 3 (Jul. – Sep. 1984), pp. 586–588 (587)
- ISBN 9781135455965.
The license to teach law and issue legal opinions (ijazat al-ifta' wa 'l-tadris; also ijazat al-tadris wa'lifta' or simply ijazat al-ifta') is the type of ijazah that resembles the medieval European university degree most closely, for, rather than authorizing the recipient to transmit or teach a particular text, it attests to his or her mastery of an entire field (in this case, the law) and permits entry into professional categories: law professor (mudarris) and jurisconsult (mufti).] The main difference between the two is that the granting authority is an individual professor, in the Islamic case, rather than a corporate institution in the case of the university. Despite this point, Makdisi has likened the ijazat al-ifta' wa'l-tadris to the medieval Latin licentia docendi and suggests that it served as a model for that degree.
- ^ "Degree explanations". Hitechcj.com. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "Lambeth Degrees". Facultyoffice.org.uk. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "Archbishop of Canterbury awards Lambeth Degrees". Ox.ac.uk. 4 June 2008. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014.
- Department for Business, Innovation & Skills. 11 December 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2016.
- ^ "Guidelines for the use of the word 'university'". Department of Education and Training. Australian Government. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
Only registered higher education providers can offer Australian Higher Education Qualifications.
- ^ "Recognised UK degrees". Department for Business, Innovation and Skills and Department for Education. 15 September 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
- ^ "About us". The Council for Higher Education. 14 November 2017. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
- ^ "'Walter Mitty' builder blagged top jobs and £1m in wages with fake CV". Plymouth Herald. 6 March 2017. Archived from the original on 6 March 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
- ^ "Advice and Guidance on Degree Fraud" (PDF). Higher Education Degree Datacheck. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
- ^ "Protocols for Staff Listings in the University Calendar". Massey University. 2008. Retrieved 12 September 2011.
- ^ a b "ABBREVIATIONS: NAMES OF UNIVERSITIES, ETC" (PDF). Massey University. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
- ^ "Oxon". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 21 December 2015.
- ^ "Cantab". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 21 December 2015.
- ^ a b Calendar Style Guide 2015 (PDF). University of Oxford. 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 August 2018. Retrieved 3 September 2016.
- ^ John Carvel (18 October 1999). "Oxbridge defends automatic MAs under threat from quality watchdog". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 May 2016.
- ^ "New designation for University of Malta degrees". Times of Malta. 23 January 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
- ISBN 9781408181188.
- ^ "Dr Mark Nicholson". University of York, Department of Computer Science. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
- ISBN 9781408181188.
- ^ e.g. "XVII. Administration and Faculty: College of Social and Applied Human Sciences: Department of Sociology and Anthropology". 2013-2014 Undergraduate Calendar. University of Guelph. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
- ^ "Master of Science". Cambridge Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
- ^ "Commonwealth University Degree Abbreviations" (PDF). Trinity College Dublin. pp. 17–42. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
- ^ "Definition of an Online Degree". Solveyourproblem.com. 2007.
- ISSN 0738-0593.
- ^ Earnest, Joshua; Gupta, S.K.; Sthuthi, Rachel (2018). "Need of Two Distinct Baccalaureate Engineering Programmes in India". University News—A Weekly Journal of Higher Education, Pub: Association of Indian Universities. 12-18.
- ISSN 2579-2253.
- ^ "South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)". National Government of South Africa. 2012–2023. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
- ^ "CBC New Kenya Education System". NexxusHub Blog. 4 April 2021. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
- ^ Amutabi, Maurice (2019). "Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) and the end of an Era in Kenya's Education Sector and Implications for Development: Some Empirical Reflections". Journal of Popular Education in Africa. 3 (10): 45–66 – via Research Gate.
- ^ "Members". European Higher Education Area. Archived from the original on 18 October 2010. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
- ISBN 978-92-9201-847-4. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
- ^ "European Qualifications Framework for lifelong learning". European Quality Assurance in Vocational Education and Training. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
- ^ "Descriptors defining levels in the European Qualifications Framework (EQF)". European Commission. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
- ISBN 3-85456-453-8. Archived from the original(PDF) on 11 August 2007.
- ^ a b "Degrees and qualifications — Uddannelses - og Forskningsministeriet". Ufm.dk. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "Etusivu". Opetus- ja kulttuuriministeriö. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "Etusivu". Opetus- ja kulttuuriministeriö. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ a b "Article D612-34 du Code de l'éducation". Légifrance. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
- ^ Décret 2012-432 du 30 mars 2012 relatif à l’exercice de l’activité d’expertise comptable.
- ^ Article D672-5 du code de l’éducation.
- ^ "Arrêté du 23-8-2010, attribution du grade aux titulaires du diplôme national supérieur d'arts plastiques délivré par l'École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts". Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr (in French). Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "Arrêté du 23-8-2010, attribution du grade aux titulaires du diplôme délivré par l'École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs". Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr (in French). Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "Arrêté du 23-8-2010, attribution du grade aux titulaires du diplôme national supérieur d'expression plastique délivré par les établissements d'enseignement supérieur d'arts plastiques (formulation L. 75-10-1)". Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr (in French). Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "Arrêté du 31-5-2010, Attribution du grade de master aux titulaires des diplômes de deuxième cycle" (PDF). Media.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr (in French). Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ Article D612-34 du code de l’éducation
- ^ "Ministère de l'Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche, Bulletin officiel spécial 4 du 20 juin 2013, 2. Liste des diplômes des établissements d'enseignement supérieur technique privés et consulaires vises par le ministre charge de l'enseignement supérieur et conférant a leurs titulaires le grade de master" (PDF). Cache.media.enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr (in French). Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "Arrêté du 26 juin 2012, attribution du grade aux titulaires du diplôme de management et contrôle du trafic aérien délivré par l'École nationale de l'aviation civile". Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr (in French). Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "Arrêté du 26 juin 2012, attribution du grade aux titulaires du diplôme d'ingénierie des systèmes électroniques de la sécurité aérienne délivré par l'École nationale de l'aviation civile". Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ Arrêté du 27 février 2014 relatif à l'attribution du grade de master aux officiers diplômés de l'Ecole spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr
- ^ "Article Article D612-32-2 du Code de l'éducation". Légifrance. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
- ^ Article D636-69 du code de l’éducation
- ^ Décret 2012-432 du 30 mars 2012 relatif à l’exercice de l’activité d’expertise comptable
- ^ Article D672-5 du code de l’éducation
- ^ Article D675-19 du code de l’éducation
- ISBN 9781873927649.
- ^ "Education in France". World Education News and Reviews. World Education Services. 8 September 2015. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
- ^ French project working group (October 2010). "Referencing of the national framework of French certification in the light of the European framework of certification for lifelong learning" (PDF). Commission Nationale de la Certification Professionelle. p. 13. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
- ^ "Mastère Spécialisé (MS)". Studyrama.com.
- EHEA. Archived from the original(PDF) on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
- ^ a b Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs. "Higher education" (PDF). The Education System in the Federal Republic of Germany. pp. 171–172.
- ^ Bundesministerium für Building under Forcing (13 June 2013). "German EQF Referencing Report" (PDF). p. 216. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
- ^ Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs. "Higher education" (PDF). The Education System in the Federal Republic of Germany. pp. 173–174.
- ^ "Framework Levels & Award Types – About the NFQ – National Framework of Qualifications". Nfq.ie. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
- ^ "Italian Qualifications Framework" (PDF). Ministry of Education, University and Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
- ^ "Professional titles (licences)". Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f "Italian Qualification Framework for the Higher Education". Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Framework of qualifications awarded under the previous system". Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
- ^ a b "Other qualifications". Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
- ^ "Universitaire bachelors – alle 400+ bacheloropleidingen van de Nederlandse universiteiten". universitairebachelors.nl.
- ^ "Universitaire masters – alle 1200+ masteropleidingen van de Nederlandse universiteiten". universitairemasters.nl.
- ^ ANP (28 January 2010). "RVZ: 'schaf numerus fixus bij geneeskunde af' :: archief nrc.nl". Vorige.nrc.nl. Archived from the original on 17 May 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
- ^ a b c Zaken, Ministerie van Algemene (19 April 2011). "Welke titel mag ik voeren als ik ben afgestudeerd? - Rijksoverheid.nl". www.rijksoverheid.nl.[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b c Aleid Fokma (16 June 2010). "Bachelor-mastertitulatuur: titels combineren". Onzetaal.nl. Archived from the original on 8 August 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
- ^ "Citizens' questions letter from Dutch Department of Education, Culture and Science" (PDF). Members.home.nl. 8 September 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 28 November 2014.
- ^ "Art. 435 Sr" (in Dutch). Wetten.overheid.nl. 21 October 2009. Archived from the original on 18 July 2010. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
- ^ "Art. 435 Sr (translated by Google)" (in Dutch). Translate.google.nl. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
- ^ Article 7.23, paragraph 3 of the Dutch Higher Education and Scientific Research Act provides the Informatie Beheer Groep (now called DUO, i.e. the Service for Implementing the Education) with the possibility to grant such a permission
- ^ Informatie Beheer Groep (IB-Groep) is a service (now called DUO) of the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science Archived 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ More information on legislation on "DUO – IB-Groep/Diploma assessment". Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 5 January 2009.
- ^ Application for a recognized Dutch title (in Dutch) Archived 14 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine and Application for a recognized Dutch title (in English) Archived 24 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ The Diploma Mafias – with a list of diploma factories worldwide Newsabah Archived 1 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Overview (table of contents)". Retsinformation.dk. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "RUSSIAN SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION". En.spbstu.ru. Archived from the original on 13 July 2014.
- ^ "Russian System of Higher Education". En.sibsau.ru. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 10 July 2014.
- ^ "Higher Education in Russia". Hse.ru.
- ^ Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation. "Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other European countries". Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
- ^ "Education in Russia for foreign citizens: Recognition and equivalence of documents of education and scientific degrees". russia.edu.ru. Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
- ^ "Revision of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED); UNESCO. General Conference; 36th; 2011". unesco.org.
- ^ "European Higher Education Area website 2010-2020- EHEA". ehea.info.
- ^ a b "Home". aneca.es.
- ^ a b c d "Registro de Universidades, Centros y Títulos (RUCT) - Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte". Archived from the original on 14 July 2013. Retrieved 26 October 2013.
- ^ "Welcome to Buscador de Títulos Universitarios – ANECA – Buscador de Títulos Universitarios – ANECA". aneca.es.
- ^ "Search – Buscador de Títulos Universitarios – ANECA". aneca.es.
- ^ "Página no encontrada - Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte". Mecd.gob.es. Archived from the original on 18 December 2016. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- Crus.ch. 25 August 2009. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
- ^ "Official regulation on the Bologna Process". Admin.ch. 1 February 2006. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
- ^ "Rectors' Conference of the Swiss Universities; unification of degree names". Crus.ch. 2 February 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
- ^ Department of Business, Innovation and Skills, UK government's list of recognised bodies, retrieved 12 March 2014
- ^ "Degree classification, grade, honours, first class, second class, two two, university, jobs". 15 November 2018.
- ^ "Bachelor Degree Grades Explained | Blog". Document-centre.co.uk. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
- ^ "Foundation degree qualification benchmark", Qaa.ac.uk, archived from the original on 12 March 2014, retrieved 12 March 2014
- ^ Master's degree characteristics, archived from the original on 12 March 2014, retrieved 12 March 2014
- ^ Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, "doctoral degree characteristics", Qaa.ac.uk, archived from the original on 12 March 2014, retrieved 12 March 2014
- ^ "The framework for higher education qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (FHEQ)", Qaa.ac.uk, archived from the original on 20 March 2014, retrieved 12 March 2014
- ^ "Quality Code, Chapter A1: The national level", Qaa.ac.uk, archived from the original on 12 March 2014, retrieved 12 March 2014
- ^ Scottish qualifications framework, forming part of the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework, "The framework for qualifications of higher education institutions in Scotland (FHQEIS)", Qaa.ac.uk, archived from the original on 18 November 2012, retrieved 12 March 2014
- ^ Council of Ministers of Education, Canada. pp. 2–7. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ "Bachelors Degree". York University. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ "Academic credentials in Canada". The Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ "UA Medical School". Med.ualberta.ca. Archived from the original on 14 December 2010. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
- ^ "UToronto Medical School". Md.utoronto.ca. Archived from the original on 18 June 2010. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
- ^ "Osgoode Hall Law School". Yorku.ca. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
- ^ "University of Windsor Law School". Uwindsor.ca. Archived from the original on 12 June 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
- ^ "Faculté de pharmacie de l'Université de Montréal". Université de Montréal. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
- ^ "Secretaría de Educación Pública :: Requisitos Nivel Técnico Superior Universitario". 28 September 2010. Archived from the original on 28 September 2010.
- ^ "¿ Por qué estudiar una licenciatura o carrera técnica ?". Profesionistas.org.mx. 13 February 2014. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- US Department of Education. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ "Technical Notes". Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities: 2014. National Science Foundation. December 2015. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ "Types of research doctoral degrees recognized by the Survey of Earned Doctorates: 2014" (PDF). Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities: 2014. National Science Foundation. December 2015. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ "Research degrees included in the Survey of Earned Doctorates: 2010–14" (PDF). Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities: 2014. National Science Foundation. December 2015. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- US Department of Education. February 2008. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ US Department of Education. February 2008. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ Association of American Universities Data Exchange. Glossary of Terms for Graduate Education Archived 4 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 26 May 2008; National Science Foundation (2006). "Time to Degree of U.S. Research Doctorate Recipients Archived 2016-03-08 at the Wayback Machine," InfoBrief, Science Resource Statistics NSF 06-312, 2006, p. 7. (under "Data notes" mentions that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); San Diego County Bar Association (1969). Ethics Opinion 1969-5. Accessed 26 May 2008. (under "other references" discusses differences between academic and professional doctorate and statement that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); University of Utah (2006). University of Utah – The Graduate School – Graduate Handbook Archived 26 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 28 May 2008. (the J.D. degree is listed under doctorate degrees); German Federal Ministry of Education. U.S. Higher Education / Evaluation of the Almanac Chronicle of Higher Education Archived 13 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 26 May 2008. (report by the German Federal Ministry of Education analyzing the Chronicle of Higher Education from the U.S. and stating that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); Encyclopædia Britannica. (2002). Encyclopædia Britannica, 3:962:1a. (the J.D. is listed among other doctorate degrees).
- US Department of Education. February 2008. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ US Department of Education. February 2008. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ "Oregon Student Assistance Commission Office of Degree Authorization (ODA): Religious Exempt Schools". Archived from the original on 21 February 2011.
- ^ "Bill addresses degrees from unaccredited institutions". Dailyemerald.com. 29 July 2009. Archived from the original on 15 November 2010.
- ^ "In a first, women surpass men in college degrees". cbsnews.com. 26 April 2011.
- ^ "Women surpassing men by degrees". Times Union. 27 April 2011.
- ^ a b Bidwell, Allie (13 February 2015). "Placing a Value on Education". US News Digital Weekly. 7 (7). Retrieved 13 October 2015.
- S2CID 143986876.
- ^ "Higher education qualifications". Australian Government. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ a b "Australian Qualifications Framework Second Edition" (PDF). Australian Qualifications Framework Council. January 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 September 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ "Australian Grading System Explained: A Complete Guide | Study in Australia • OzStudies". Ozstudies.com.
- ^ "Australia". New Zealand Qualifications Authority. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ "Understanding New Zealand qualifications". New Zealand Qualifications Authority. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ "Ireland". New Zealand Qualifications Authority. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
- ^ "Award of honours and distinction". Auckland University of Technology. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
- ^ The direct competence of the Holy See applies only to the Ecclesiastical Faculties of Theology, Philosophy and Canon Law. The other sciences and arts degrees are under the competence of the Department of Education of the Philippine Republic.
- ^ a b "Sapientia Christiana (April 15, 1979) - John Paul II". Vatican.va. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "AVEPRO". avepro.va. Retrieved 1 November 2012.