Coloman, King of Hungary
Coloman the Learned | |
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Roman Catholic |
Coloman the Learned,
In the year of Coloman's coronation, at least five large groups of crusaders arrived in Hungary on their way to the Holy Land. He annihilated the bands who were entering his kingdom unauthorized or pillaging the countryside, but the main crusader army crossed Hungary without incident. He invaded Croatia in 1097, defeating its last native king Petar Snačić. Consequently, he was crowned king of Croatia in 1102. According to the late 14th-century Pacta conventa (the authenticity of which is not universally accepted by scholars), he was only crowned after having ratified a treaty with the leaders of the Croatian nobility. For centuries thereafter, the Hungarian monarchs were also the kings of Croatia.
Coloman had to face his brother's attempts to dethrone him throughout his life; Álmos devised plots to overthrow him on at least five occasions. In retaliation, he seized his brother's duchy in 1107 or 1108 and had Álmos and Álmos' son Béla blinded in about 1114. Hungarian chronicles, which were compiled in the reigns of kings descending from his mutilated brother and nephew, depict Coloman as a bloodthirsty and unfortunate monarch. On the other hand, he is portrayed as "the most well-versed in the science of letters among all the kings of his day"[5] by the contemporaneous chronicler Gallus Anonymus. Coloman's decrees, which governed many aspects of life—including taxation, trade and relations between his Christian and non-Christian subjects—remained unmodified for more than a century. He was the first Hungarian king to renounce control of the appointment of prelates in his realms.
Early years (c. 1070–1095)
Coloman was the elder of the two sons of King
Coloman's father ascended the throne in 1074.
In preparation for his clerical life, Coloman learnt to read and write and acquired a good knowledge of Latin.[15] His proficiency in canon law was praised in a letter that Pope Urban II addressed to him in 1096.[15][16] According to Kristó, upon finishing his studies he was ordained priest and in the early 1090s was appointed bishop.[15] Hungarian chronicles completed in the 14th and 15th centuries say that Coloman was bishop of either Eger or Várad.[15][17] For instance, the Illuminated Chronicle states that he was "bishop of Warad" (or Várad),[18] and Ladislaus I wanted to appoint him "bishop of Agria" (or Eger).[17][19][20]
According to the Illuminated Chronicle, both Coloman and Álmos accompanied their uncle on a military campaign against Bohemia in early 1095.[21][22] Before reaching the border of his kingdom, Ladislaus I "was overcome by a grave infirmity"[23] and decided to appoint Álmos as his heir.[22][24] Instead of obeying his uncle's decision, Coloman fled to Poland.[25][26] He returned to Hungary around 29 July 1095 when his uncle died.[26] The exact circumstances of his ascension to the throne are uncertain.[27] The Illuminated Chronicle states Ladislaus had invited him back from Poland.[27] The same source adds that Álmos, "in the true simplicity of his heart honoured his brother, Coloman, and yielded to him the crown of the kingdom",[23] which suggests that he ascended the throne without bloodshed.[25] On the other hand, Coloman was crowned king in early 1096, the delay implying that the two brothers had been fighting for the crown before they reached an agreement.[26][28] It is also possible, as proposed by Font, that he could only be crowned after Pope Urban II had released him from his clerical vows.[25]
Reign
Facing the crusaders (1095–1096)
Coloman was crowned in Székesfehérvár by Archbishop Seraphin of Esztergom.[25] According to the Illuminated Chronicle, at the same time he "granted the dukedom with full rights" to Álmos.[16][29] This report shows that Álmos only acknowledged his brother's rule in exchange for receiving the duchy once held by their father and grandfather, an area that comprised one third of the territory of the kingdom.[16][30]
Shortly after his coronation, Coloman had to face problems that the armies of the
The next arrivals, headed by Peter the Hermit, arrived in late May or early June.[32][33] Coloman permitted them to enter Hungary only after Peter pledged that he would prevent them from pillaging the countryside.[32] According to Guibert of Nogent's records, Peter could not keep his promise: the crusaders "burned the public granaries ..., raped virgins, dishonored many marriage beds by carrying off many women", although "the Hungarians, as Christians to Christians, had generously offered everything for sale" to them.[37][38] Peter himself claimed that he and his companions had passed through the country without incident until they reached Zimony, where they learnt of the story of the sixteen crusaders who had been robbed by the Hungarians.[39] The crusaders besieged and took the town, where they massacred "[a]bout four thousand Hungarians",[40] according to the contemporaneous Albert of Aix's estimation.[38][41] They only withdrew when Coloman's troops approached them.[39]
A third band of crusaders reached
[The crusaders] were even granted a licence to buy and sell necessary supplies, and peace was proclaimed on both sides according to [Coloman's] instructions, lest a dispute might arise from such a large army. But when they were delayed there for some days, they began to wander, and the Bavarians and Swabians, a bold race, and the rest of the soldiers foolishly drank too much; they violated the proclaimed peace, little by little stealing wine, barley, and other necessities from the Hungarians, finally seizing sheep and cattle in the fields and killing them; they destroyed those who stood up to them and wanted to drive them out. The others committed several crimes, all of which we cannot report, like a people foolish in their boorish habits, unruly and wild. For, as those say who were present, they stabbed a certain young Hungarian in the market street with a stake through his private parts, because of a most contemptible dispute. ... [Coloman] was disturbed by this scandal, ... so he ordered ... that the signal should be given to the whole of Hungary to stir to battle in vengeance of this crime and the other insults, and not one of the pilgrims was to be spared because they had carried out this vile deed.
— Albert of Aix: History of the Journey to Jerusalem[47]
Alarmed by these incidents, Coloman forbade the crusaders who arrived under the leadership of Count Emicho in the middle of July to enter Hungary.[33][48][49] Ignoring the king's order, they broke through the defensive lines and laid siege to Moson.[2][49] Their catapults destroyed the walls in two places, enabling them to storm into the fortress on 15 August.[49] Coloman made preparations to flee to Rus', fearing that the crusaders would occupy the whole country.[49] However, for no apparent reason, a panic broke out among the attackers that enabled the garrison to carry out a sortie and rout them.[49][50] Modern scholars agree that rumours about the sudden arrival of Coloman's army frightened the crusaders off from the fortress.[50][51] According to Albert of Aix, contemporaneous Christians thought that Emicho's defeat was a punishment that God inflicted on the pilgrims because they had massacred many Jews "rather from greed for their money than for divine justice".[50][52]
The first crusader army organized by the Holy See reached the borders of Hungary in September 1096.
The contemporaneous Cosmas of Prague wrote that "some of the Jews" who had been persecuted by the crusaders in Bohemia arrived in Hungary and "secretly took their wealth away with them".[58][59] Although Cosmas does not specify their number, László Mezey and other historians say that the Jews represented a large influx.[59][60] Coloman issued a number of decrees and separate statutes—Capitula de Iudeis—regulating the position of Jews in Hungary.[59] For instance, he forbade them from holding Christian slaves and residing "outside episcopal sees".[59][61][62] Historian Nora Berend writes that the "defence of purity of Christians by interdictions against mingling with Jews plays a very minor role" in Coloman's legislation in comparison with late 12th-century canon law.[59] Whereas he did not try to convert the Jews, he issued decrees aimed at the conversion of his Muslim subjects.[63] For instance, he prescribed that if a Muslim "has a guest, or anyone invited to dinner, both he and his table companions shall eat only pork for meat"[64] in order to prevent Muslims from observing their dietary laws.[65]
Expansion, internal conflicts and legislation (1096–1105)
After Coloman's victories over the crusaders,
Coloman invaded
Taking advantage of Coloman's absence, Álmos began to conspire against the king and mustered his armies.[78] Coloman returned from Croatia and marched his army towards his brother's duchy in 1098.[78] The two armies met at Tiszavárkony, with only the river Tisza separating them.[79] However, the commanders of the two troops started negotiations and decided not to fight each other, compelling the king and the duke to make peace.[79][80]
[Coloman] and his army marched to [Tiszavárkony] against [Álmos], and [Álmos] drew near to [Tiszavárkony] from the opposite direction, and between them was the river [Tisza]. But loyal Hungarians sought to bring about a truce, in order that they could talk with each other, and they said: "Why do we fight? If they defeat us in battle, we shall die; and if they escape, they will flee: in times past
The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle[81]
Grand Prince
Coloman decided to review his predecessors' decrees around 1100.
Coloman was crowned king of Croatia in Biograd na Moru in 1102.[76] In the 13th century, Thomas the Archdeacon wrote that the union of Croatia and Hungary was the consequence of conquest.[73] However, the late 14th-century Pacta conventa narrates that he was only crowned after he had reached an agreement with twelve leading Croatian noblemen, because the Croats were preparing to defend their kingdom against him by force.[73] Whether this document is a forgery[101] or an authentic source[102] is a subject of scholarly debate. According to the historian Pál Engel, even if the document is a forgery, its content "is concordant with reality in more than one respect" concerning the special status of Croatia throughout the Middle Ages.[2] For instance, in case of a foreign invasion, Croatian noblemen were obliged to fight at their own expense only up to the river Drava, which was considered the border between Croatian territories and Hungary.[73][101]
Coloman was a man of warlike spirit, and resolved to subjugate to his lordship all the land to the Adriatic Sea. He came with a force of arms and took possession of the remaining part of Slavonia, which Ladislas had passed over.
— Thomas the Archdeacon: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split[103]
In an attempt to prevent an alliance between Coloman and
Family affairs (1105–1113)
Coloman had his four-year-old son
Coloman sent envoys to the Council of Guastalla, which had been convoked by Pope Paschal II.[104] In October 1106 the envoys solemnly informed the pope of their king's renunciation of his royal prerogative to appoint the prelates of his realms.[104][115] According to historians Ferenc Makk and Márta Font, without this declaration the Holy See would not have acknowledged Coloman's conquest of Dalmatia.[104][115] During the civil war between Boleslaw III and his brother Zbigniew, Coloman intervened on the former's behalf and helped him overcome the latter's army in Mazovia in 1107.[116] Coloman also sent Hungarian reinforcements to the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos against Bohemond I of Antioch, who had invaded Byzantine territories in October 1107.[113] After suffering a sound defeat, Bohemond withdrew his troops and acknowledged the emperor's suzerainty over the Principality of Antioch in the Treaty of Devol in 1108.[113][117]
In 1107 or 1108 Álmos made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.[113] Coloman decided to take advantage of his absence and seized his duchy.[113] Although Álmos was allowed to keep his own private property, the annexation of his duchy secured Coloman's authority in the whole kingdom.[114] After returning from the Holy Land, Álmos set up a monastery at Dömös.[114] On the occasion of its consecration, at which Coloman was also present, Álmos was—falsely, according to the Illuminated Chronicle—accused of trying to assassinate the monarch.[114] Coloman had his brother arrested, but "the most reverend bishops and other well-disposed dignitaries" intervened on Álmos's behalf and "thus reconciliation was solemnly sworn"[118] between the king and his brother.[114]
Álmos left for
In the same year, Coloman visited Dalmatia and confirmed the privileges of Split, Trogir, and Zadar.[113] He returned to Zadar around 1111 and reaffirmed the Dalmatian towns' liberties.[113] The Zobor Abbey received two charters of grant from Coloman in 1111 and 1113.[121] The first diploma mentioned a provost in Nyitra (Nitra, Slovakia), but the second charter referred to the bishop of the same town.[121] According to a scholarly theory, the two documents show that Coloman set up the bishopric at Nyitra between 1111 and 1113.[121] These two royal charters also mention a Mercurius as "princeps Ultrasilvanus", which implies he was the first voivode of Transylvania, but he may have been only an important landowner in the province without holding any specific office.[122] In 1112 Coloman made an incursion into Austria.[123] He either wanted to take revenge for Leopold III of Austria's participation in the 1108 German campaign against Hungary, or simply to seize booty.[123]
In 1112 Coloman—who had been widowed—married
Last years (1113–1116)
In 1113 Duke Boleslaw III of Poland, who had blinded his rebellious brother Zbigniew, causing his death, "undertook a journey of pilgrimage to St. Gilles and St. Stephen the King",[126] to the Somogyvár Abbey, and to the king's shrine at Székesfehérvár in Hungary.[8][120] Coloman received the Polish monarch cordially in Somogyvár.[8] Shortly afterwards—between 1113 and 1115—Coloman discovered that Álmos was again conspiring to seize the throne.[2][127] Having lost his patience, the king had Álmos and Álmos's young son Béla blinded to secure a peaceful succession for his own son.[2] On the same occasion, many of his brother's partisans were likewise mutilated.[128] According to one of the two versions of these events recorded in the Illuminated Chronicle, the king even ordered that Béla should be castrated but the soldier who was charged with this task refused to execute the order.[129] The chronicle also states that the child was believed to have died after his blinding, but he was actually kept in a monastery for more than a decade.[130]
[The] King took the Duke and his infant son Bela and blinded them. He also gave orders that the infant Bela should be castrated. But the man who was instructed to blind them feared God and the sterility of the royal line, and therefore he castrated a dog and brought its testicles to the King.
—The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle[131]
The fleet of Venice, commanded by Doge Ordelafo Faliero, invaded Dalmatia in August 1115.[132][133] The Venetians occupied the Dalmatian islands and some of the coastal cities but could not take Zadar and Biograd na Moru.[132] By that time, Coloman was gravely ill.[134] The symptoms recorded in the Illuminated Chronicle indicate a serious otitis, which caused encephalitis.[127] Before his death, he "instructed his son and his great men that after his death they should take vengeance on Russia for the injury done to him"[135] during his campaign of 1099.[134] Upon his councillor's advice, he also had Álmos, who had taken refuge in the monastery of Dömös, imprisoned.[136]
The King now began to be gravely ill, and he had a Latin doctor, named Draco, in whom he placed too much trust. This doctor applied a poultice to the ears of the King, who was oppressed by headaches, and the strength of the poultice drew out through the cavities of his ears no small part of his brain. When the poultice had been removed because he could endure it no longer, he showed it to Count Othmar. When he inspected it and saw upon it the matter drawn forth from the brain, he said to the King: "Lord, it behoves you to prepare yourself for
The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle[135]
Coloman died on 3 February 1116.
Family
Ancestors of Coloman of Hungary Boleslav I of Poland | |||||||||||||||||||
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10. Mieszko II Lambert of Poland | |||||||||||||||||||
21. Emnilda | |||||||||||||||||||
5. Richeza or Adelaide of Poland | |||||||||||||||||||
22. Ezzo of Lotharingia | |||||||||||||||||||
11. Richeza of Lotharingia | |||||||||||||||||||
23. Matilda of Germany | |||||||||||||||||||
1. Coloman of Hungary | |||||||||||||||||||
3. Sophia | |||||||||||||||||||
Coloman's first wife Felicia—who is incorrectly named Busilla in earlier historiography—was the daughter of Count
Coloman married his second wife Eufemia in the summer of 1112.[112][123] Born in 1096 or 1097, she was at least 25 years younger than Coloman.[112] She was the daughter of Vladimir II Monomakh, who was Prince of Pereyaslavl at the time of her marriage.[112] After Coloman repudiated her on a charge of adultery, Eufemia fled to Kiev, where she gave birth to a son, Boris, who was never regarded as Coloman's son by his Hungarian relatives.[143]
The following family tree presents Coloman's ancestors and some of his relatives who are mentioned in the article.[142]
Béla I | Richeza or Adelaide | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sophia* | Géza I | unnamed Synadene* | Ladislaus I | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Álmos | Piroska | John II Komnenos | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Kings of Hungary (from 1131) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Saul | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
*Whether Géza's first or second wife was his children's mother is uncertain.
Legacy
Late medieval Hungarian chronicles, written under kings descended from Álmos, preserved an unfavorable image of Coloman and his rule.
Coloman's statesmanship is appreciated in modern historiography. According to Kontler, "it was ... under Coloman's reign that the medieval Hungarian state became consummate and acquired its final structure".[147] Font and Kristó write that Coloman's laws governed his kingdom without modifications for more than a century, even under monarchs hostile towards his memory.[148][149] Likewise, coinage in Hungary followed the pattern established by Coloman's small denars throughout the 12th century.[150]
His contemporaries Pope Urban II and Gallus Anonymus were aware of Coloman's "uncommon erudition".[3][151] According to the chronicles, the Hungarians called him Cunues[18] or Qunwes—the Learned or the Book-Lover—"because of the books he owned".[150][152] The Illuminated Chronicle says that Coloman "read the canonical hours like a bishop"[18] in his books.[150] According to Kristó, Coloman's court was a center of learning and literature.[153] Bishop Hartvik compiled his Life of King Stephen of Hungary under Coloman.[153][154] Kristó writes that it is probable that the Lesser Legend of Saint Gerard of Csanád (Cenad, Romania) was also written during Coloman's reign.[153] Historians also attribute the first compilation of Hungarian historical records to his efforts.[153][155]
References
- ^ a b c d e f Font 2001, p. 7.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Engel 2001, p. 35.
- ^ a b c d Kontler 1999, p. 63.
- ^ Klaniczay 2002, p. 129.
- ^ a b The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles (ch. 2.29), p. 173.
- ^ a b c d e Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 125.
- ^ Font 2001, p. 12.
- ^ a b c d e f g Font 2001, p. 13.
- ^ a b Bartl et al. 2002, p. 27.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 61.
- ^ Font 2001, pp. 13–14.
- ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 143.102), p. 131.
- ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, pp. 126–127.
- ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 127.
- ^ a b c d Font 2001, p. 14.
- ^ a b c Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 133.
- ^ a b Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 128.
- ^ a b c The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 152.108), p. 133.
- ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 139.100), p. 130.
- ^ Font 2001, pp. 7, 14.
- ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 129.
- ^ a b Font 2001, p. 15.
- ^ a b c The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 140.101), p. 130.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 34.
- ^ a b c d Font 2001, p. 16.
- ^ a b c Makk 1989, p. 11.
- ^ a b Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 131.
- ^ a b c Stephenson 2000, p. 197.
- ^ a b The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 142.102), p. 131.
- ^ Font 2001, p. 20.
- ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 67.
- ^ a b c d e f Rubenstein 2011, p. 56.
- ^ a b c d e Érszegi & Solymosi 1981, p. 97.
- ^ Tyerman 2006, p. 96.
- ^ Albert of Aachen: Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem (ch. i.6), p. 11.
- ^ Rubenstein 2011, pp. 56–58.
- ^ The Deeds of God through the Franks—Gesta Dei per Francos (Book Two), p. 148.
- ^ a b Rubenstein 2011, p. 60.
- ^ a b Rubenstein 2011, p. 61.
- ^ Albert of Aachen: Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem (ch. i.8), p. 17.
- ^ Runciman 1951, p. 124.
- ^ a b c d e f Bartl et al. 2002, p. 28.
- ^ a b c d e Rubenstein 2011, p. 64.
- ^ Tyerman 2006, p. 100.
- ^ Rubenstein 2011, p. 65.
- ^ Tyerman 2006, p. 95.
- ^ Albert of Aachen: Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem (ch. i.23–24), pp. 45–47.
- ^ Font 2001, pp. 67–68.
- ^ a b c d e Rubenstein 2011, p. 66.
- ^ a b c Runciman 1951, p. 141.
- ^ Tyerman 2006, p. 103.
- ^ Albert of Aachen: Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem (ch. i.29), p. 59.
- ^ a b c d Font 2001, p. 68.
- ^ a b c Rubenstein 2011, p. 72.
- ^ Runciman 1951, p. 148.
- ^ Rubenstein 2011, p. 73.
- ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 86.
- ^ Cosmas of Prague: The Chronicle of the Czechs (3.5), p. 187.
- ^ a b c d e Berend 2001, p. 75.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 75.
- ^ Laws of King Coloman (Coloman:75), p. 30.
- ^ Font 2001, p. 60.
- ^ Berend 2001, pp. 84–85.
- ^ Laws of King Coloman (Coloman:49), p. 28.
- ^ Berend 2001, p. 211.
- ^ a b Font 2001, p. 21.
- ^ The letters of Henry IV: Henry thanks Duke Almus for his support and promises him a reward, p. 171.
- ^ Font 2001, pp. 21–22.
- ^ a b Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 136.
- ^ a b c d e f Font 2001, p. 78.
- ^ Font 2001, p. 77.
- ^ Norwich 1992, pp. 272, 333.
- ^ a b c d e Magaš 2007, p. 51.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 265.
- ^ a b c d Fine 1991, p. 284.
- ^ a b c d Curta 2006, p. 266.
- ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 197–198.
- ^ a b c Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 137.
- ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 22.
- ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 138.
- ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 144.102–103), p. 131.
- ^ a b c d Makk 1989, p. 13.
- ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 73.
- ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 74.
- ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 142.
- ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 145.104), p. 132.
- ^ Russian Primary Chronicle (year 6605), p. 196.
- ^ Engel 1994, p. 560.
- ^ Cosmas of Prague: The Chronicle of the Czechs (3.9), pp. 190–191.
- ^ Makk 1989, p. 31.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 33.
- ^ a b Laws of King Coloman (Coloman:Preamble), p. 24.
- ^ Font 2001, p. 31.
- ^ a b Kontler 1999, p. 65.
- ^ Laws of King Coloman (Coloman:57), p. 24.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 47.
- ^ a b Tóth, Béla (22 October 2004) [1984]. "Könyves Kálmán és a boszorkányok [Coloman the Learned and the witches]". Mendemondák: A világtörténelem furcsaságai [Rumours: Strange Facts of World History]. Helikon / Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár. Retrieved 3 January 2014.
- ^ Laws of King Coloman (Coloman:60), p. 24.
- ^ Font 2001, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Font 2001, p. 47.
- ^ a b Curta 2006, p. 267.
- ^ Fine 1991, pp. 284–285.
- ^ Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split (ch. 17), p. 95.
- ^ a b c d e f g Makk 1989, p. 14.
- ^ a b c d e Stephenson 2000, p. 199.
- ^ a b Stephenson 2000, p. 200.
- ^ a b Font 2001, p. 66.
- ^ Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split (ch. 17), p. 97.
- ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 200–201.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 36.
- ^ a b Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 143.
- ^ a b c d Font 2001, p. 79.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Makk 1989, p. 15.
- ^ a b c d e Font 2001, p. 23.
- ^ a b Font 2001, p. 70.
- ^ Manteuffel 1982, p. 106.
- ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 182–183.
- ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 148.105), p. 132.
- ^ Manteuffel 1982, p. 108.
- ^ a b Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 146.
- ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 71.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 355.
- ^ a b c d e Makk 1989, p. 16.
- ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 149.106), p. 132.
- ^ Font 2001, p. 80.
- ^ The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles (ch. 2.25), p. 277.
- ^ a b Font 2001, p. 82.
- ^ Makk 1989, pp. 16–17.
- ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 161.
- ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 164.
- ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 150.106), p. 133.
- ^ a b Stephenson 2000, p. 203.
- ^ Makk 1989, p. 17.
- ^ a b c d e f Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 148.
- ^ a b The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 151.107), p. 133.
- ^ a b Font 2001, p. 83.
- ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 150.107), p. 133.
- ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, pp. Appendices 1–2.
- ^ Wiszewski 2010, pp. 29–30, 60, 376.
- ^ Norwich 1992, pp. 146, 333.
- ^ Makk 1989, p. 12.
- ^ a b c Kristó & Makk 1996, p. Appendix 2.
- ^ Font 2001, p. 81.
- ^ Font 2001, pp. 86–87.
- ^ Master Roger's Epistle (ch. 1.), pp. 135–137.
- ^ Font 2001, p. 85.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 64.
- ^ Font 2001, p. 35.
- ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 144.
- ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 48.
- ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 126.
- ^ Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of the Hungarians (ch. 2.64), pp. 138–139.
- ^ a b c d Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 147.
- ^ Klaniczay 2002, p. 135.
- ^ Font 2001, p. 28.
Sources
Primary sources
- Albert of Aachen: Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem (Edited and translated by Susan B. Edgington) (2007). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920486-1.
- Anna Comnena: The Alexiad (Translated by E. R. A. Sewter) (1969). Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044958-7.
- Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split (Latin text by Olga Perić; edited, translated and annotated by Damir Karbić, Mirjana Matijević Sokol, and James Ross Sweeney) (2006). CEU Press. ISBN 963-7326-59-6.
- Cosmas of Prague: The Chronicle of the Czechs (Translated with an introduction and notes by Lisa Wolverton) (2009). The Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 978-0-8132-1570-9.
- Master Roger's Epistle to the Sorrowful Lament upon the Destruction of the Kingdom of Hungary by the Tatars (Translated and Annotated by János M. Bak and Martyn Rady) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); Anonymus and Master Roger; CEU Press; ISBN 978-963-9776-95-1.
- Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of the Hungarians (Edited and translated by László Veszprémy and Frank Schaer with a study by Jenő Szűcs) (1999). CEU Press. ISBN 963-9116-31-9.
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