Common ethanol fuel mixtures
Several common ethanol fuel mixtures are in use around the world. The use of pure hydrous or anhydrous
Ethanol fuel mixtures have "E" numbers which describe the percentage of ethanol fuel in the mixture by volume, for example, E85 is 85% anhydrous ethanol and 15% gasoline. Low-ethanol blends are typically from E5 to E25, although internationally the most common use of the term refers to the E10 blend.
Blends of E10 or less are used in more than 20 countries around the world, led by the United States, where ethanol represented 10% of the U.S. gasoline fuel supply in 2011.
E10 or less
E10, a
Other common blends include E5 and E7. These concentrations are generally safe for recent engines that should run on pure gasoline. As of 2006, mandates for blending
One measure of alternative fuels in the U.S. is the "
E10 and other blends of ethanol are considered to be useful in decreasing U.S. dependence on foreign oil, and can reduce
Availability
- E10 became the standard fuel at petrol stations in the United Kingdom as of September 2021.[10] E5 is still an option for drivers who wish to fuel incompatible cars but is decreasing in availability.
- E10 was introduced nationwide in Thailand in 2007, and replaced 91 octane pure gasoline in that country in 2013.[11]
- E10 is commonly available in the MTBE as a gasoline additive and mainly due to the mandates established in the Energy Policy Act of 2005 and the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, ethanol blends have increased throughout the United States, and by 2009, the ethanol market share in the U.S. gasoline supply reached almost 8% by volume.[13][14]
- Many petrol stations throughout Australia sell E10, typically at a few cents cheaper per litre than regular unleaded. It is more commonly found throughout the state of Queensland due to its large sugarcane farming regions. The use of E10 is also subsidised by the Queensland government. [citation needed] Many petrol stations are either slowly phasing out or already do not offer a "Regular 91" petrol option, instead only offering Regular E10 (91 or 94 depending on brand), Premium (95) and Premium (98), although regular unleaded still remains commonly available in Victoria and New South Wales.
- In Sweden, all 95-octane gasoline is E10 (6 to 10 percent of ethanol) since 1 August 2021, when the proportion of ethanol was increased from E5. In the early-mid-1990s, some fuel chains also sold E10. All newer and many older petrol cars bought in Sweden should handle this,[15] since from January 2011, the Fuel Quality Directive (Directive 2009/30/EC) applied through its transposition into the law of Sweden as a member of the 27 member states of the EU.[16] Older petrol cars should be compatible with 98-octane fuel, which includes maximum 5 percent of ethanol, often much less. The product data sheets of the major fuel chains has not clearly stated ethanol content of their 98-octane gasoline, but it varies between places.
Year | Gasoline | Diesel | Jet kerosene
|
---|---|---|---|
2020 | 4,2 % | 21 % | - |
2021 | 6,0 % (1 Aug) | 26 % (1 Aug) | 0,8 % (1 July) |
2022 | 7,8 % | 30,5 % | 1,7 % |
2023 | 7,8 %** |
30,5 %** |
2,6 % |
2024 | 6%* |
6%* |
3,5 % |
2025 | 6%* |
6%* |
4,5 % |
2026 | 6%* |
6%* |
7,2 % |
2027 | 10,8 % | ||
2028 | 15,3 % | ||
2029 | 20,7 % | ||
2030 | 27,0 % |
- From January 2011, all 95-octane fuel in Finland is E10, and 98E5 octane fuel is also available.
- Mandatory blending of ethanol was approved in Mozambique, but the percentage in the blend has not been specified.[20]
- South Africa approved a biofuel strategy in 2007, and mandated an 8% blend of ethanol by 2013.[20]
- A 2007 Uruguayan law mandates a minimum of 5% of ethanol blended with gasoline starting in January 2015.[21] The monopolic, state-owned fuel producer ANCAP started blending premium gasoline with 10% of bioethanol in December 2009, which will be available in all the country by early January 2010.[22] The other two gasolines will follow later in 2010.
- The Dominican Republic has a mandate for blending 15% of ethanol by 2015.[4]
- Chile is considering the introduction of E5, and Panama, Bolivia and Venezuela of E10.[23]
- India achieved the target of 10 percent ethanol blending, 5 months ahead of schedule, in June 2022.[24]
- From January 2018, all 92-octane fuel in Vietnam is mandated to contain 5 percent ethanol (E5). No ethanol blending is required for 95-octane fuel.[25]
- From June 2021, Argentina approved an E12 minimum (Law 27640), and after October 2022 a waiver for a maximum of E15.[26][27]
Low ethanol blends used around the world (E5 to E25) | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | Ethanol blend |
Legal use | Country | Ethanol blend |
Legal use | Country | Ethanol blend |
Legal use | State | Ethanol blend |
State | Ethanol blend |
Countries with mandatory blends or available for optional use | European Union | United States (states where mandatory only)[n 1] | ||||||||||
Argentina[26] | E12 |
Mandated[n 2] | Mexico[23] | E6 |
Mandated[n 3] | Austria[32] | E10 |
Optional | Florida | E10
|
Minnesota | E10
|
Australia[33] | E10 |
Optional | New Zealand[34] | E10 |
Optional | Denmark[32] | E5 |
Optional | Hawaii | E10
|
Missouri | E10
|
Brazil[35] | E18-E27.5 |
Mandated | Pakistan[36] | E10 |
Optional | Finland[37] | E5/E10 |
Mandated | Iowa | E10
|
Montana | E10
|
Canada[38] | E5 |
Mandated[n 4] | Paraguay[39] | E18/24 |
Mandated | France[40][41] | E5/E10 |
Optional | Kansas | E10
|
Oregon | E10[n 5]
|
China[43] | E10 |
Nine provinces | Peru[44] | E8 |
Mandated[n 6] | Germany[46] | E5/E10 |
Optional[n 7] | Louisiana | E10
|
Washington | E10
|
Colombia[47] | E10 |
Mandated[n 8] | Philippines[49] | E10 |
Mandated | Ireland[50] | E4 |
Mandated | California [51] | E10
|
||
Costa Rica[52][53] | E7 |
Mandated[n 9] | Thailand[56] | E10/E20 |
Mandated | Netherlands | E5/E10/hE15 |
Optional | ||||
India[57] | E20 |
Mandated | Vietnam | E5 |
Optional | Romania[58] | E4 |
Mandated | ||||
Jamaica[59] | E10 |
Mandated[n 10] | Zimbabwe[60] | E20 |
Mandated | Sweden[61] | E5/E10 |
Mandated | ||||
Malawi[20] | E10 |
Mandated[n 11] | ||||||||||
See the country notes at the end of the article
|
A 2011 study conducted by
E15
E15 contains 15% ethanol and 85% gasoline. This is generally the highest ratio of ethanol to gasoline that is possible to use in vehicles recommended by some auto manufacturers to run on E10 in the US.[63][64] This is due to ethanol's hydrophilia and solvent power.
As a result of the
Other sources make the opposite claim about fuel economy. According to Consumer Reports, "ethanol isn’t as energy-dense as regular gasoline so you will see worse fuel economy with E15 gas.”[67]
In March 2009, a lobbying group from the ethanol industry, Growth Energy, formally requested the
In October 2010, the EPA granted a waiver to allow up to 15% of ethanol blended with gasoline to be sold only for cars and light pickup trucks with a model year of 2007 or later, representing about 15% of vehicles on U.S. roads.[69][70][71] In January 2011, the waiver was expanded to authorize use of E15 to include model year 2001 through 2006 passenger vehicles. The EPA also decided not to grant any waiver for E15 use in any motorcycles, heavy-duty vehicles, or nonroad engines because current testing data do not support such a waiver. According to the Renewable Fuels Association, the E15 waivers now cover 62% of vehicles on the road in the US, and the ethanol group estimates if all 2001 and newer cars and pickups were to use E15, the theoretical blend wall for ethanol use would be approximately 17.5 billion gallons (66.2 billion liters) per year. The EPA was still studying if older cars can withstand a 15% ethanol blend.[72][73]
The EPA waiver authorizes sale of E15 only from Sep 15 to May 31 out of a black hose and a yellow hose to flex fuel vehicles only from June 1 to Sep 14. Retailers have shunned building infrastructure due to the costly regulatory requirements which have created a practical barrier to the commercialization of the higher blend. Most fuel stations do not have enough pumps to offer the new blend, few existing pumps are certified to dispense E15, and no dedicated tanks are readily available to store E15. Also, some state and federal regulations would have to change before E15 can be legally sold.
In June 2011 EPA, in cooperation with the Federal Trade Commission, issued its final ruling regarding the E15 warning label required to be displayed in all E15 fuel dispensers in the U.S. to inform consumers about what vehicles can, and what vehicles and equipment cannot, use the E15 blend. Both the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers and the National Petrochemical and Refiners Association complained that relying solely on this warning label is not enough to protect consumers from misfueling.[74][75] In July 2012, a fueling station in Lawrence, Kansas became the first in the U.S. to sell the E15 blend. The fuel is sold through a blender pump that allows customers to choose between E10, E15, E30 or E85, with the latter blends sold only to flexible-fuel vehicles.[76] As of June 2013[update], there are about 24 fueling stations selling E15 out of 180,000 stations across the U.S.[77]
In December 2010, several groups, including the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, the
As of November 2012[update], sales of E15 are not authorized in California, and according to the California Air Resources Board (CARB), the blend is still awaiting approval, and in a public statement the agency said that "it would take several years to complete the vehicle testing and rule development necessary to introduce a new transportation fuel into California's market."[81]
According to a survey conducted by the
In November 2013, the Environmental Protection Agency opened for public comment its proposal to reduce the amount of ethanol required in the U.S. gasoline supply as mandated by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. The agency cited problems with increasing the blend of ethanol above 10%. This limit, known as the "blend wall," refers to the practical difficulty in incorporating increasing amounts of ethanol into the transportation fuel supply at volumes exceeding those achieved by the sale of nearly all gasoline as E10.[86][87]
hE15
A 15% hydrous ethanol and 85% gasoline blend, hE15, has been introduced at public gas stations in the Netherlands since 2008. Ethanol fuel specifications worldwide traditionally dictate use of anhydrous ethanol (less than 1% water) for gasoline blending. This results in additional costs, energy usage and environmental impacts associated with the extra processing step required to dehydrate the hydrous ethanol produced via distillation (3.5-4.9 vol.% water) to meet the current anhydrous ethanol specifications. A patented discovery reveals hydrous ethanol can be effectively used in most ethanol/gasoline blending applications.[88][89]
According to the Brazilian
The experiments show that water in fuel ethanol inhibits dry corrosion. At 10,000 ppm water in the E50 experiments by JARI and 3,500 ppm water in the E20 experiments by TU Darmstadt the alcoholate/alkoxide corrosion stopped. In the fuel ethanol this resembles 20,000 ppm or 2 volume% in the case of JARI and 5 x 3500 = 17,500 ppm of 1.75 volume% in the case of TU Darmstadt. The observations are in line with the fact that hydrous ethanol is known for being less corrosive than anhydrous ethanol. The reaction mechanism will be the same at lower-mid blends. When enough water is present in the fuel, the aluminum will react preferably with water to produce aluminum oxide, repairing the protective aluminum oxide layer, which is why the corrosion stops. The aluminum alcoholate/alkoxide does not make a tight oxide layer, which is why the corrosion continues. In other words, water is essential to repair the holes in the oxide layer. Based on the Japanese/German results, a minimum of 2 vol.% or 2.52% m/m water is currently proposed in the revision of the hydrous ethanol specification for blending in petrol at E10+ levels. Water injection has additional positive effects on the engine performance (thermodynamic efficiency) and reduces overall CO2 emissions.[citation needed]
Overall, a transition from anhydrous to hydrous ethanol for gasoline blending is expected to make a significant contribution to ethanol's cost-competitiveness, fuel cycle net energy balance, air quality, and greenhouse gas emissions.[91]
The level of blending above 10% (V/V) is chosen both from a technical (safety) perspective and to distinguish the product in Europe from regular unleaded petrol for reasons of taxes and customer clarity. Small-scale tests have shown many vehicles with modern engine types can run smoothly on this hydrous ethanol blend. Mixed tanking scenarios with anhydrous ethanol blends at 5% or 10% level do not induce phase separation. As avoiding mixing with E0, in particular at extremely low temperatures, in logistic systems and engines is not recommended, a separate specification for controlled usage is presented in a Netherlands Technical Agreement NTA 8115. The NTA 8115 is written for a worldwide application in trading and fuel blending.[92]
E20, E25
Historical evolution of ethanol blends used in Brazil 1931–2010 (Selected years only) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Year | Ethanol blend |
Year | Ethanol blend |
1931 | E5 | 2003 | E20-25 |
1966 | E25 | 2004 | E20 |
1976 | E11 | 2005 | E22 |
1978 | E18-20-23 | 2006 | E20 |
1981 | E20-12-20 | 2007 | E23-25 |
1987-88 | E22 | 2008[93] | E25 |
1993-98 | E22 | 2009[93] | E25 |
2000 | E20 | 2010[94] | E20-25 |
2001 | E22 | 2011[95] | E18-E25 |
2015 | E18-E27.5 | ||
Source: 1937–2007, J.A. Puerto Rico (2007), Table 3.8, pp. 81–82[96] Note: The 2010 reduction from E25 to E20 was temporary and took place between February and April.[94] The lower limit was reduced from 20% to 18% in April 2011.[95][97] |
E20 contains 20% ethanol and 80% gasoline, while E25 contains 25% ethanol. These blends have been widely used in Brazil since the late 1970s.[96] As a response to the 1973 oil crisis, the Brazilian government made mandatory the blend of ethanol fuel with gasoline, fluctuating between 10% and 22% from 1976 until 1992.[96] Due to this mandatory minimum gasoline blend, pure gasoline (E0) is no longer sold in Brazil. A federal law was passed in October 1993 establishing a mandatory blend of 22% anhydrous ethanol (E22) in the entire country. This law also authorized the Executive to set different percentages of ethanol within pre-established boundaries, and since 2003, these limits were fixed at a maximum of 25% (E25) and a minimum of 20% (E20) by volume.[35][96] Since then, the government has set the percentage on the ethanol blend according to the results of the sugarcane harvest and ethanol production from sugarcane, resulting in blend variations even within the same year.[96]
Since July 1, 2007, the mandatory blend was set at 25% of anhydrous ethanol (E25) by executive decree,[93] and this has been the standard gasoline blend sold throughout Brazil most of the time as of 2011.[98] However, as a result of a supply shortage and the resulting high ethanol fuel prices, in 2010, the government mandated a temporary 90-day blend reduction from E25 to E20 beginning February 1, 2010.[94][99] As prices rose abruptly again due to supply shortages that took place again between the 2010 and 2011 harvest seasons, some ethanol had to be imported from the United States, and in April 2011, the government reduced the minimum mandatory blend to 18%, leaving the mandatory blend range between E18 and E25.[95][97]
All Brazilian automakers have adapted their gasoline engines to run smoothly with this range of mixtures, thus, all gasoline vehicles are built to run with blends from E20 to E25, defined by local law as "common gasoline type C".
Thailand introduced E20 in 2008,[107] but shortages in ethanol supplies by mid-2008 caused a delay in the expansion of the E20 fueling station network in the country.[108] By mid-2010, 161 fueling stations were selling E20, and sales have risen 80% since April 2009.[109] The rapid growth in E20 demand is because most vehicle models launched since 2009 were E20-compatible, and sales of E20 are expected to grow faster once more local automakers start producing small, E20-compatible, fuel-efficient cars. The Thai government is promoting ethanol usage through subsidies, as ethanol costs four baht (about 12 US cents) a litre more than gasoline.[109]
A state law approved in Minnesota in 2005 mandated that ethanol comprise 20% of all gasoline sold in this American state beginning in 2013. Successful tests have been conducted to determine the performance under E20 by current vehicles and fuel dispensing equipment designed for E10.[110] However, this mandate was later delayed to 2015, and has never taken effect because the federal EPA has yet to authorize the use of E20 as a replacement for gasoline.
A study commissioned by
E70, E75
E70 contains 70% ethanol and 30% gasoline, while E75 contains 75% ethanol. These winter blends are used in the United States and Sweden for E85 flexible-fuel vehicles during the cold weather, but still sold at the pump labeled as E85.[114] The seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to an E85 winter blend is mandated to avoid cold starting problems at low temperatures.[114][115]
In the US, this seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to E70 applies only in cold regions, where temperatures fall below 32 °F (0 °C) during the winter.[116][117] In Wyoming for example, E70 is sold as E85 from October to May.[114][118] In Sweden, all E85 flexible-fuel vehicles use an E75 winter blend.[115] This blend was introduced since the winter 2006-07 and E75 is used from November until March.[119]
For temperatures below −15 °C (5 °F), all E85 flex vehicles require an engine block heater to avoid cold starting problems.[119] The use of this device is also recommended for gasoline vehicles when temperatures drop below −23 °C (−9 °F).[120] Another option when extreme cold weather is expected is to add more pure gasoline in the tank, thus reducing the ethanol content below the E70 winter blend, or simply not to use E85 during extreme low temperature spells.[119][120]
E85
E85, a mixture of 85% ethanol and ~15% gasoline, is generally the highest ethanol fuel mixture found in the United States and several European countries, particularly in Sweden, as this blend is the standard fuel for
The 85% limit in the ethanol content was set to reduce ethanol emissions at low temperatures and to avoid cold starting problems during cold weather, at temperatures lower than 11 °C (52 °F).[116] A further reduction in the ethanol content is used during the winter in regions where temperatures fall below 0 °C (32 °F)[117] and this blend is called Winter E85, as the fuel is still sold under the E85 label. A winter blend of E70 is mandated in some regions in the US,[114][118] while Sweden mandates E75.[115][119] Some regions in the United States now allow E51 (51% ethanol, 49% gasoline) to be sold as E85 in the winter months.
As of October 2010, nearly 3,000 E85 fuel pumps were in Europe, led by Sweden with 1,699 filling stations.[121][122] The United States had 3,354 public E85 fuel pumps located in 2,154 cities by August 2014, mostly concentrated in the Midwest.[123]
Thailand introduced E85 fuel by the end of 2008, and by mid-2010, only four E85 filling stations were available, with plans to expand to 15 stations by 2012.[109]
A major restriction hampering sales of E85 flex vehicles or fuelling with E85, is the limited infrastructure available to sell E85 to the public, as by 2014 only 2 percent of motor fuel stations offered E85,[124] up from about 1 percent in 2011.[125] As of November 2015[update], there were only 3,218 gasoline fueling stations selling E85 to the public in the entire U.S.,[126] while about 156,000 retail motor fuel outlets do not offer the E85 blend.[124] The number of E85 grew from 1,229 in 2007 to 2,442 in 2011, but only increased by 7% from 2011 to 2013, when the total reached 2,625.[124] There is a great concentration of E85 stations in the Corn Belt states, and as of November 2015[update], the leading state is Minnesota with 274 stations, followed by Michigan with 231, Illinois with 225, Iowa with 204, Indiana with 188, Texas with 181, Wisconsin with 152, and Ohio with 126. Only eight states do not have E85 available to the public, Alaska, Delaware, Hawaii, Montana, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont.[127] The main constraint for a more rapid expansion of E85 availability is that it requires dedicated storage tanks at filling stations,[120] at an estimated cost of US$60,000 for each dedicated ethanol tank.[128] A study conducted by the U.S. Department of Energy concluded that every service station in America could be converted to handle E85 at a cost of $3.4 billion to $10.1 billion.
ED95
ED95 designates a blend of 95% ethanol and 5% ignition improver; it is used in modified diesel engines where high compression is used to ignite the fuel,[129] as opposed to the operation of gasoline engines, where spark plugs are used. This fuel was developed by Swedish ethanol producer SEKAB.[129] Because of the high ignition temperatures of pure ethanol, the addition of ignition improver is necessary for successful diesel engine operation. A diesel engine running on ethanol also has a higher compression ratio and an adapted fuel system.
This fuel has been used with success in many Swedish Scania buses since 1985, which has produced around 700 ethanol buses, more than 600 of them to Swedish cities, and more recently has also delivered ethanol buses for commercial service in Great Britain, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Norway.[130] As of June 2010 Stockholm has the largest ethanol ED95 bus fleet in the world.[130][131]
As of 2010, the Swedish ED95 engine is in its third generation and already has complied with Euro 5 emission standards, without any kind of post-treatment of the exhaust gases. The ethanol-powered engine is also being certified as environmentally enhanced vehicle (EEV) in the Stockholm municipality. The EEV rule still has no date to enter into force in Europe and is stricter than the Euro 5 standard.[132]
Nottingham became the first city in England to operate a regular bus service with ethanol-fuelled vehicles. Three ED95 single-deck buses entered regular service in the city in March 2008. Soon after, Reading also introduced ED95 double-deck buses.[133]
Under the auspices of the BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport project, more than 138 bioethanol ED95 buses were part of demonstration trial at four cities, three in Europe, and one in Brazil, between 2006 and 2009.[2][134][135] A total of 127 ED95 buses operated in Stockholm, five buses operated in Madrid, three in La Spezia, and one in Brazil.[2] In Brazil, the first Scania ED95 bus with a modified diesel engine was introduced as a trial in
In November 2010, the municipal government of
E100
E100 is pure
The first commercial vehicle capable of running on pure ethanol was the
E100 imposes a limitation on normal vehicle operation, as ethanol's lower evaporative pressure (as compared to gasoline) causes problems when cold starting the engine at temperatures below 15 °C (59 °F).
Swedish carmakers have developed ethanol-only capable engines for the new
The higher
Use limitations
Modifications to engines
The use of ethanol blends in conventional gasoline vehicles is restricted to low mixtures, as ethanol-gasoline is corrosive and can degrade some of the materials in the engine and fuel system. Also, the engine has to be adjusted for a higher compression ratio as compared to a pure gasoline engine to take advantage of ethanol's higher oxygen content, thus allowing an improvement in fuel efficiency and a reduction of tailpipe emissions.[113] The following table shows the required modifications to gasoline engines to run smoothly and without degrading any materials. This information is based on the modifications made by the Brazilian automotive industry at the beginning of the ethanol program in that country in the late 1970s, and reflects the experience of Volkswagen do Brasil.[167]
Ethanol blend |
Carburetor | Fuel Injection |
Fuel pump |
Fuel pressure device |
Fuel filter | Ignition system | Evaporative system |
Fuel tank |
Catalytic converter | Basic engine |
Motor oil | Intake manifold |
Exhaust system | Cold start system |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
≤ 5% | Modifications not necessary for any vehicle | |||||||||||||
E5 to E10 | Modifications not necessary for vehicles since about 1987-92 | |||||||||||||
E10 to E25 | Specially designed vehicles | |||||||||||||
E25 to E85 | Specially designed vehicles | |||||||||||||
E85 to E100 | Specially designed vehicles | |||||||||||||
Modifications not necessary |
Modifications probably necessary |
Disadvantages to ethanol fuel blends when used in engines designed exclusively for gasoline include lowered fuel mileage, metal corrosion, deterioration of plastic and rubber fuel system components, clogged fuel systems, fuel injectors, and carburetors, delamination of composite fuel tanks, varnish buildup on engine parts, damaged or destroyed internal engine components, water absorption, fuel phase separation, and shortened fuel storage life.[169][170][171] Many major auto, marine, motorcycle, lawn equipment, generator, and other internal combustion engine manufacturers have issued warnings and precautions about the use of ethanol-blended gasolines of any type in their engines,[172] and the Federal Aviation Administration and major aviation engine manufacturers have prohibited the use of automotive gasolines blended with ethanol in light aircraft due to safety issues from fuel system and engine damage.[169][170][171][173]
Other disadvantages
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (February 2019) |
See also
- Butanol fuel
- Ethanol fuel
- Ethanol fuel energy balance
- Ethanol fuel in Brazil
- Biofuel in Sweden
- Ethanol fuel in the United States
- Food vs. fuel
- Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels
- List of flexible-fuel vehicles by car manufacturer
- List of gasoline additives
Notes
- ^ Though mandated only in 10 states, ethanol blends in the U.S. are available in other states as optional or added without any labeling, making E blends present in two-thirds of the U.S. gasoline supply.[28][29]
- ^ Actual blend is subject to ethanol availability. Blend for 2021 was 120% and expected to reach 12% in 2022 [30]
- ^ Starting on December 15, 2010.[38]
- ^ The State of Oregon exempted premium unleaded gasoline (91octane or higher) from the 10% ethanol mandate for road use since January 2010.[42]
- Lima-Callao metropolitan area.[45]
- ^ E5 is scheduled to be phased out in 2013
- ^ In Colombia mandatory blend was enforced only in cities with more than 500.000 inhabitants.[48]
- ^ Mandatory blend scheduled for 2009 was postponed. Sales of E7 continue in the original trial region in the Guanacaste Province and six municipalities in the Puntarenas Province.[54] Nationwide availability rescheduled to begin in June 2012.[55]
- ^ Since November 1, 2008 became available in some cities and will become mandatory in May 2009.
- ^ Actual blend is subject to ethanol availability
References
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- ^ a b c BEST Cities and Regions (2009). "BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport: Results and recommendations from the European BEST project" (PDF). Environmental and Health Administration, City of Stockholm. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-09-30. Retrieved 2011-05-29.
- ^ E10: Every vehicle's ethanol blend, drivingethanol.org. Archived May 12, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b "Towards Sustainable Production and Use of Resources: Assessing Biofuels" (PDF). United Nations Environment Programme See Table 3.3. 2009-10-16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-11-22. Retrieved 2009-10-27.
- ^ "U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)".
- ^ Low-Level Ethanol Fuel Blends, Clean Cities fact sheet, April 2005.
- U.S. Department of Energy.
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- ^ "Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin CE-07-06" (PDF). Federal Aviation Administration. October 27, 2006.
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- ^ The Tidö Agreement.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8213-8516-6. See Table 4.1
- ^ Ley Nº 18.195: Agrofuels (in Spanish) Archived 2011-07-27 at the Wayback Machine - Parliament of Uruguay.
- ^ Ancap planea llevar de 2% a 5% mezcla con biodiesel - Diario El País, December 12, 2009 (in Spanish)
- ^ a b "Technology Roadmaps: Biofuels for Transport" (PDF). International Energy Agency. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-25. Retrieved 2011-08-27. See Table 1 pp. 10-11.
- ^ "India has achieved the target of 10 percent ethanol blending, 5 months ahead of schedule". Press Information Bureau. 2022-06-05. Retrieved 2022-06-07.
- ^ Ngừng bán xăng RON 92 trên toàn quốc từ năm 2018 - Báo Điện Tử Chính Phủ, September 12, 2017 (in Vietnamese)
- ^ a b "BOLETIN OFICIAL REPUBLICA ARGENTINA - MARCO REGULATORIO DE BIOCOMBUSTIBLES - Ley 27640". www.boletinoficial.gob.ar. Retrieved 2023-04-24.
- ^ "Argentina.gob.ar". Argentina.gob.ar (in Spanish). Retrieved 2023-04-24.
- ^ "State Legislation". Ethanol.org. Archived from the original on 2008-09-08. Retrieved 2008-10-24.Florida starting in 2010 and Minnesota will go up to E20 in 2013.
- ^ Kate Galbraith (2008-07-26). "In Gas-Powered World, Ethanol Stirs Complaints". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
- ^ "Situación del Mercado de Etanol en Argentina" (in Spanish). Más Producción.com. 2010-11-26. Retrieved 2011-02-13.
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- ^ a b AIT/FIA Information Centre (OTA) (2007). "Sale of biofuels around the world" (PDF). Motormannen. Retrieved 2008-10-25.
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