Common pheasant
Common pheasant Temporal range:
| |
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Male ("cock") | |
Female ("hen") both in England | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Galliformes |
Family: | Phasianidae |
Genus: | Phasianus |
Species: | P. colchicus
|
Binomial name | |
Phasianus colchicus | |
Geographical distribution of common pheasant Native Introduced | |
Synonyms | |
Phasianus phasis |
The common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) is a bird in the pheasant family (Phasianidae). The genus name comes from Latin phasianus, "pheasant". The species name colchicus is Latin for "of Colchis" (modern day Georgia), a country on the Black Sea where pheasants became known to Europeans.[2] Although Phasianus was previously thought to be closely related to the genus Gallus, the genus of junglefowl and domesticated chickens, recent studies show that they are in different subfamilies, having diverged over 20 million years ago.[3][4]
It is native to Asia and parts of Europe like the northern foothills of the Caucasus and the Balkans. It has been widely introduced elsewhere as a
It is a well-known
The
Description
There are many colour forms of the male common pheasant, ranging in colour from nearly white to almost black in some melanistic examples. These are due to captive breeding and hybridisation between subspecies and with the green pheasant, reinforced by continual releases of stock from varying sources to the wild. For example, the "ring-necked pheasants" common in Europe, North America and Australia do not pertain to any specific taxon, they rather represent a stereotyped hybrid swarm.[6] Body weight can range from 0.5 to 3 kg (1 to 7 lb), with males averaging 1.2 kg (2 lb 10 oz) and females averaging 0.9 kg (2 lb 0 oz).[7] Wingspan ranges from 56–86 cm (22–34 in).[8]
The adult male common pheasant of the
The female (hen) and juveniles are much less showy, with a duller mottled brown plumage all over and measuring 50–63 cm (19+1⁄2–25 in) long including a tail of around 20 cm (8 in). Juvenile birds have the appearance of the female with a shorter tail until young males begin to grow characteristic bright feathers on the breast, head and back at about 10 weeks after hatching.[9]
The green pheasant (P. versicolor) is very similar, and hybridisation often makes the identity of individual birds difficult to determine. Green pheasant males on average have a shorter tail than the common pheasant and have darker plumage that is uniformly bottle-green on the breast and belly; they always lack a neck ring. Green pheasant females are darker, with many black dots on the breast and belly.
In addition, various colour mutations are commonly encountered, mainly melanistic (black) and flavistic (isabelline or fawn) specimens. The former are rather common in some areas and are named Tenebrosus pheasant (P. colchicus var. tenebrosus).
Taxonomy and systematics
This species was first scientifically described by
However, the bird does not occur in Africa, except perhaps in Linnaeus's time in
In the US, common pheasants are widely known as "ring-necked pheasants". More colloquial North American names include "chinks" or, in Montana, "phezzens".[19] In China, meanwhile, the species is properly called zhi ji (雉鸡)—"pheasant-fowl"—essentially implying the same as the English name "common pheasant". Like elsewhere, P. colchicus is such a familiar bird in China that it is usually just referred to as shan ji (山雞), "mountain chicken",[20] a Chinese term for pheasants in general.
As of 2005, it had the smallest known genome of all living amniotes, only 0.97 pg (970 million base pairs), roughly one-third of the human genome's size; however, the black-chinned hummingbird is now currently held to have the smallest.[21]
Subspecies
There are about 30
An investigation into the genetic relationships of subspecies revealed that the earliest subspecies is likely to have been elegans, suggesting that the common pheasant originated from the forests of southeastern China.[24] Initial divergence is thought to have occurred around 3.4 Mya. The lack of agreement between morphology-based subspecies delimitation and their genetic relationships is thought to be attributed to past isolation followed by more recent population mixing as the pheasant has expanded its range across the western Palaearctic.[25]
Sometimes this species is split into the
Many subspecies are in danger of disappearing due to hybridisation with introduced birds. The last indigenous black-necked pheasant (P. c. colchicus) population in Europe survives in Greece in the delta of the river Nestos, where in 2012 the population was estimated 100–250 individuals.[25]
The subspecies groups,[23] going from west to east, and some notable subspecies are:
Subspecies | Range | Description | Image |
---|---|---|---|
WESTERN CLADE – Red-rumped pheasants: |
The lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts are of a bronze-red, maroon, or rusty-orange general colour, sometimes glossed with oily green; black bars on the tail generally narrow. | ||
Colchicus group – Black-necked pheasants: colchicus, septentrionalis, talischensis, persicus |
Caucasus to W. Turkestan, Turkey (Samsun area)[27] and Greece (Nestos delta)[25] | No neck ring. Wing coverts chestnut |
|
Chrysomelas/principalis group – White-winged pheasants: principalis, zarudnyi, zerafschanicus, bianchii, chrysomelas, shawii |
Central Turkestan and western Tarim Basin | No or vestigial neck ring. Wing coverts white, uppertail coverts and general plumage hue bronze to brown | |
Mongolicus group – Kyrghyz pheasants: turcestanicus, mongolicus |
NE Turkestan and adjacent Xinjiang. Note that, despite its name, mongolicus does not occur in Mongolia. | Broad neck ring. Wing coverts white, uppertail coverts hue rusty to chestnut, general plumage hue copper |
|
Tarimensis group – Tarim pheasants: tarimensis |
SE Turkestan around the eastern Tarim Basin | No or vestigial neck ring. Wing coverts buff to brown, uppertail coverts dark olive |
|
EASTERN CLADE – Grey-rumped pheasants: |
The lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts are of a light and more or less lavender-blue, greenish- or yellowish-grey, or olive-greenish color; a rusty orange patch on each side of the rump; black tail-bars generally broad. | ||
Elegans group – Yunnan pheasants: elegans, rothschildi |
Eastern Tibet, western Sichuan, northwestern and southeastern Yunnan, northwestern Vietnam and northern Myanmar. | White neck collar and orbital lines are absent. A broad band of richly glossed dark green or bluish green colour runs down the underparts, completely separating the brassy-chestnut of the sides of the chest. Crown dark green. Uppertail coverts light bluish grey. | |
Strauchi/vlangalii group – Western grey-rumped pheasants: suehschanensis, vlangalii, satscheuensis, edzinensis, strauchi, sohokhotensis, alaschanicus, kiangsuensis |
Qaidam Basin, eastern Qinghai, northeastern Sichuan, Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Ningxia, Shanxi, Shaanxi, western Hebei. Note that, despite its name, kiangsuensis does not occur in Jiangsu. | The white neck collar and orbital lines are usually either absent (suehschanensis) or rather narrow, often not complete. Brassy-chestnut on chest dominating over glossy green colour (which only in suehschanensis reaches from foreneck to the belly). Crown usually dark green. | |
Torquatus group – Chinese ring-necked pheasants: hagenbecki, pallasi, karpowi, torquatus, takatsukasae, decollatus |
Widespread in eastern China, extending to northernmost Vietnam in the south and to the Strait of Tartary region in the north; with an isolated population in north-western Mongolia. Absent from Hainan. Most pheasants in North America are of this group. | White neck ring varies from broad in the north east (pallasi) to absent in the south west (decollatus). Wing coverts tan to light grey (almost white in some). Chest copper red to light brown red, in decollatus rich purple red with thick black feather margins. Crown varying from dark green without orbital lines (decollatus) to light grey framed with white orbital lines. In hagenbecki chest feathers broadly fringed black. | |
Formosanus group – Taiwan pheasants: formosanus |
Taiwan | White neck ring interrupted at front neck. Flank feathers characteristically whitish or pure white with black apices and often narrow black margins. Feathers at chest broadly fringed black, giving a scaly appearance. | |
Subspecies:[28][29] | |||
P. c. pallasi (Manchurian ring-necked pheasant) |
Southeastern Siberia ( Amurland), adjacent northeastern North Korea (alpine region) to northeastern China (east and south slopes of Greater Khingan Mountains and Lesser Khingan Mountains) |
Coloration of plumage dominated by yellow and copper brown tones. Greyish green crown, framed by white orbital lines. White collar very wide and uninterrupted, often broader at the front. | |
P. c. karpowi (Korean ring-necked pheasant) |
Northeastern China (southern Heilongjiang, Jilin, northern Liaoning, northern Hebei) and central and southern Korea and Jeju Island in South Korea. Introduced on Hokkaido, Japan.[30] | Darker and more richly coloured than P. c. pallasi, and white collar narrower. | |
P. c. elgans (Stone's pheasant) | Eastern Tibet, Western Sichuan, and Northwestern Yunnan provinces, 5,000–10,000 ft. preferred elevation. | Overall plumage dark and contrasting, but check to distinguish this subspecies from suehschanensis which has some range overlap. Scaplulars are scarcely spotted when compared to those of suehschanensis. | |
P. c. decollatus (Kweichow) | Central China ( Eastern Szechuan, Western Hubei, Northeastern Yunnan and Guizhou). | Appears like torquatus but with no collar | |
P. c. takatsukasae (Tonkinese) | Southeastern China and Tonkin | Poorly known, best identified by range. Supposedly similar to Torquatus but overall darker. | |
P. c. rothschildi (Rothschild's) | Yunnan, Tonkin, northern Laos and eastern Myanmar. Prefers elevations of 5,000 to 10,000 ft. | Similar to elegans but lighter. Best identified by range | |
P. c. torquatus (Chinese) | Eastern China | ||
P. c. formosanus (Taiwanese) | Taiwan | Black belly and pale sides. Range is also diagnostic. | |
P. c. alaschanicus (Alashan) | North Central China, Southern Mongolia. "Oases near the western foothills of Ala-Shans" | Poorly known, best identified by range. | |
P. c. hagenbecki (Kobdo) | Kobdo Valley, Mongolia, prefers elevations of 3,000 to 5,000 ft. | Distinctive bright golden flanks as well as small range are diagnostic. | |
P. c. kiangsuensis (Shansi) | Northeastern China | Extremely similar torquatus, range overlaps, but kiangsuensis skews further north. The barring on the nape in finer in kiangsuensis than in torquatus. | |
P. c. satscheuensis (Satchu) | Northwestern Gansu | Best identified by range | |
P. c. strauchi (Strauch's) | Central China, Gansu south to Szechuan. Prefers altitudes near 10,000 ft. | Extremely variable, best identified by range and elimination of other subspecies. | |
P. c. suehschanensis (Sungpan) | Northwest Szechuan and Eastern Tibet | Similar to elegans | |
P. c. vlangallii | Quinghai, prefers elevations of 2,000 to 7,000 ft. | Best identified by range | |
P. c. edzinensis | Ruo Shui basin | Similar plumage to satscheuensis, best identified by range. | |
P. c. sohokhotensis (Sohokhoto) | Sohokhoto Oasis | Resembles strauchi but paler with "eyebrows" and a collar. | |
P. c. tarimensis (Tarim basin) | Southeastern Tarim Basin | Olive-green rump | |
P. c. mongolicus (Mongolian/Kirghiz) | Northern Kyrgyzstan, Eastern Kazakhstan, Xinjiang and Urumchi. | Widespread in its range. Darkly plumaged with contrasting white wing coverts. | |
P. c turcestanicus (Syr-Daria) | Syr Darya river valley | Small range, darkly plumaged with contrasting white wing coverts, slightly brighter sides than mongolicus. | |
P. c. bianchii | Southern Uzbekistan, southwestern Tajikistan and extreme northern Afghanistan | Bright white wing coverts, also use range. | |
P. c. principalis (Prince of Wales) | Southeastern Turkmenistan, extreme northern Iran and Afghanistan | Rare, identification information poorly known other than range, look for the contrasting green and purple-maroon throat. | |
P. c. shawii (Yarkland) | Xinjiang | Bright white wing coverts | |
P. c. zerafschanicus (Zerafshan) | Bukhara, Zeravshan and Kashkadarya Valleys of Southern Uzbekistan. | Best identified by range | |
P. c. zarudnyi (Zarundy's) | Central valleys of the river Amu Darya on the eastern Turkmenistan–Uzbekistan border. | Best identified by range and glossy-green throat. | |
P. c. colchicus (Caucasian) | Bulgaria and Greece through Turkey to eastern Georgia, eastern Azerbaijan, Dagestan, Armenia and northwestern Iran. | The most widespread of the "black-necked pheasants". Commonly released as a gamebird. Possibly the ancestral population of the "old English blackneck" | |
P. c. septentrionalis (Northern Caucasian) | Dagestan to north of the Volga Delta | large, white spots on the back. Golden-orange nape that contrasts against the dark rump. | |
P. c. talischensis (Talisch) | Transcaucasia and Caspian lowlands of Iran | Fine, even white spots on the back, overall warm orange plumage, little contrast of wing plumage. Range important for ID. | |
P. c. persicus (Persian) | Southwest Turkmenistan and northcentral Iran | Overall warm orange plumage, wing plumage bright white and contrasting. |
Within a maximum clade credibility mDNA gene tree, the most basal group is the elegans-group of the Eastern Clade, diverging from the green pheasant during the Calabrian, and diversifying in Middle Pleistocene around 0.7 million years ago, with the groups of the Western Clade splitting off from those of the Eastern Clade about 0.59 million years ago.[23] While the subspecies of the Western Clade are well geographically separated from each other, the subspecies of the Eastern Clade often show clinal variation and large areas of intergradation. For example, clines connect pallasi-karpowi-torquatus-takatsukasae within the torquatus-group and kiangsuensis-alaschanicus-sohokhotensis-strauchi within the strauchi/vlangalii-group, with the degree of expression of white collar and superciliary stripe in both cases decreasing from north to south. The isolated form hagenbecki is very close to pallasi in phenotype, and has been traditionally treated within the torquatus-group until recently, when it was assigned in one study to the strauchi/vlangalii group.[23] However, the origin of the corresponding feather samples as listed in GenBank[31] is far away from the known distribution of subspecies hagenbecki, and the issue needs further clarification.
Ecology
Common pheasants are native to Asia and parts of Europe, their original range extending from the
Common pheasants are gregarious birds and outside the breeding season form loose flocks. However, captive bred common pheasants can show strong sexual segregation, in space and time, with sex differences in the use of feeding stations throughout the day.[34] Wherever they are hunted they are always timid once they associate humans with danger, and will quickly retreat for safety after hearing the arrival of hunting parties in the area.
While common pheasants are able short-distance fliers, they prefer to run. If startled however, they can suddenly burst upwards at great speed, with a distinctive "whirring" wing sound and often giving kok kok kok calls to alert
Nesting
Common pheasants nest solely on the ground in scrapes, lined with some grass and leaves, frequently under dense cover or a hedge. Occasionally they will nest in a haystack, or old nest left by other bird. They roost in sheltered trees at night. The males are polygynous as is typical for many Phasianidae, and are often accompanied by a harem of several females.[35] Common pheasants produce a clutch of around 8–15 eggs, sometimes as many as 18, but usually 10 to 12; they are pale olive in colour, and laid over a 2–3 week period in April to June. The incubation period is about 22–27 days. The chicks stay near the hen for several weeks, yet leave the nest when only a few hours old. After hatching they grow quickly, flying after 12–14 days, resembling adults by only 15 weeks of age.
They eat a wide variety of animal and vegetable type-food, like fruit, seeds, grain, mast, berries and leaves as well as a wide range of
European native
Southern Caucasian pheasants (P. c. colchicus) were common in Greece during the classical period and it is a widespread myth that the Greeks took pheasants to the Balkans when they colonised Colchis in the Caucasus. This colonization happened during the 6th century BC, but pheasant archaeological remains in the Balkans are much older dating to 6th millennium BC. This fact indicates that probably pheasants reached the area naturally.[36][37] Additionally it seems that they had a continuous range in Turkey from the Sea of Marmara on the edge of the Balkans, across the northern shore of the country till Caucasus.[38] The last remnants of the Balkan population survive in the Kotza-Orman riparian forest of Nestos, in Greece with an estimated population of 100–200 adult birds.[39] In Bulgaria they were lost in the 1970s because they hybridised with introduced eastern subspecies.[40]
Besides the Balkans the species lives in Europe in the area north of Caucasus where the local subspecies P.c.septentrionalis survives pure around the lower reaches of the Samur River. Reintroduction efforts in the rest of the north Caucasian range may include hybrid birds.[41]
As an introduced species
Common pheasants can now be found across the globe due to their readiness to breed in captivity and the fact they can naturalise in many climates, but were known to be introduced in Europe, North America,
The bird was naturalized in
By 1950 pheasants bred throughout the British Isles, although they were scarce in
North America
Common pheasants were introduced in North America in 1773,
Most common pheasants bagged in the United States are wild-born feral pheasants.[citation needed] In some states[51] captive-reared and released birds make up much of the population.[52]
Pheasant hunting is very popular in much of the US, especially in the Great Plains states, where a mix of farmland and native grasslands provides ideal habitat. South Dakota alone has an annual harvest of over 1 million birds a year by over 200,000 hunters.[53]
Negative impacts on other birds
There are a number of negative effects of common pheasants on other game birds, including:
Pheasants often compete with other native birds for resources. Studies have shown that they can lead to decreased populations of bobwhites and partridges due to habitat and food competition.[55] Insects are a valuable food source for both pheasants and partridges and competition may lead to decreased populations of partridges.[56] Pheasants may also introduce disease, such as blackhead, to native populations. While pheasants tolerate the infection well, other birds such as ruffed grouse, chukar, and grey partridge are highly susceptible.[57] Pheasants also have a tendency to harass or kill other birds. One study noted that in pheasant vs. prairie chicken interactions, the pheasants were victorious 78% of the time.[58]
Management strategies
A variety of management strategies have been suggested for areas that are home to species that are particularly threatened by pheasants, such as the prairie chickens and gray partridge. These strategies include mowing grass to decrease the nesting cover preferred by pheasants, decreasing pheasant roosting habitat, shooting pheasants in organized hunts, trapping and removing them from areas where there are high concentrations of birds of threatened species, and others.[59]
Population change
While pheasant populations are not in any danger, they have been decreasing in the United States over the last 30 years, largely in agricultural areas.
In the United Kingdom, about 50 million pheasants reared in captivity are now released each summer, a number which has significantly increased since the 1980s.[63] Most of these birds are shot during the open season (1 October to 1 February), and few survive for a year. The result is a wildly fluctuating population, from 50 million in July to less than 5 million in June.[64]
As gamebirds
Common pheasants are bred to be hunted and are shot in great numbers in Europe, especially the UK, where they are shot on the traditional formal "driven shoot" principles, whereby paying guns have birds driven over them by beaters, and on smaller "rough shoots". The open season in the UK is 1 October – 1 February, under the
The
Common pheasants are traditionally a target of small game
Pheasant farming is a common practice and is sometimes done intensively. Birds are supplied both to hunting preserves/estates and restaurants, with smaller numbers being available for home cooks.[citation needed]
The carcasses were often hung for a time to improve the meat by slight decomposition, as with most other game. Modern cookery generally uses moist roasting and farm-raised female birds. In the UK and US, game was making somewhat of a comeback in popular cooking and more pheasants than ever were being sold in supermarkets there in 2011.[67] A major reason for this is consumer attitude shift from consumption of red meat to white meat.[67]
See also
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- ^ a b Scott, p. 85
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- ^ "pheasant". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
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- ^ a b Madge, McGowan & Kirwan 2002
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- ^ a b c Sokos, Ch.; Birtsas, P. (2014). "The last indigenous Black-necked Pheasant population of Europe" (PDF). G@llinformed. 8: 13–22.[permanent dead link]
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- ^ "GenBank Data MT842672-MT842678". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/MT842672.1. 5 May 2021.
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- ^ Sokos, C. & P. Birtsas 2014: The last indigenous black-necked pheasant population of Europe. G@lliformed 8: 13–22.
- ^ Gürler, A. T., Bölükbaş, C. S., Pekmezci, G. Z., Umur, S. & M. Açıcı1 2012: Samsun’da Sülünlerde (Phasianus colchicus) Nekropsi ve Dışkı Bakısında Saptanan Helmintler. Turkiye Parazitol Derg 36: 222–227.
- ^ Χανδρινός, Γ. 2009: Φασιανός. Το Κόκκινο Βιβλίο των Απειλούμενων Ζώων της Ελλάδας: 243.
- ^ Braasch, T., Pes, T., Michel, S. & H. Jacken 2011: The subspecies of the common pheasant Phasianus colchicus in the wild and captivity. International Journal of Galliformes Conservation 2: 6–13.
- ^ Kayvanfar, N., Aliabadian, M., Niu, X., Zhang, Z. & Y. Liu 2017: Phylogeography of the Common Pheasant Phasianus colchicus. Ibis 159: 430–442.
- ^ Cross 2006
- ^ Book of British Birds, p.69
- ^ Scott, p.86
- ^ a b h2g2 2007
- ^ Farm, MacFarlane Pheasants - Pheasant Chicks, Mature Birds, America's Largest Pheasant. "Pheasant History and Facts". www.pheasant.com. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Terry, John (20 August 2011). "Oregon pioneer Owen Nickerson Denny was about more than his birds". OregonLive.com. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
- ^ "Pheasant History, Ecology & Biology". Pheasantsforever.org. Archived from the original on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
- ^ Long, John L. (1981). Introduced Birds of the World. Agricultural Protection Board of Western Australia. pp. 21–493.
- ^ "Phasianus colchicus Linnaeus, 1758". National Research Infrastructure for Australia. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
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External links
- Ring-necked Pheasant - Phasianus colchicus - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
- Ring-necked Pheasant Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
- Ring-necked Pheasant at enature.com
- Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) pheasant page
- "Ring-necked pheasant media". Internet Bird Collection.
- Ring-necked pheasant photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)
- Interactive range map of Phasianus colchicus at IUCN Red List maps