Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

Coordinates: 50°03′14″N 19°56′05″E / 50.05389°N 19.93472°E / 50.05389; 19.93472
Page semi-protected
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania
)

Kingdom of Poland and
the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Królestwo Polskie i Wielkie
Księstwo Litewskie
 (
Latin)
1569–1795[1]
Motto: 
Anthem: 
vassal states (light green) at its peak in 1619
CapitalKraków[2] (1569–1793) (de facto 1569–1596)
Warsaw[2] (1793–1795) (de facto 1596–1795)
Common languagesOfficial:
Polish and Latin
Religion
Official:
Catholicism[3]
Minority:
Sigismund II
• 1764–1795 (last)
Stanisław II
Chancellor of Poland
 
• 1569–1576 (first)
Walenty Dembiński
• 1793–1795 (last)
Antoni Sułkowski
Grand Chancellor of Lithuania 
• 1569–1584 (first)
Mikołaj Radziwiłł
• 1764–1795 (last)
Joachim Chreptowicz
LegislatureGeneral sejm
Senate
Chamber of Deputies
Historical eraEarly modern period
1 July 1569
5 August 1772
3 May 1791
23 January 1793[1]
24 October 1795[1]
Area
1582[8]815,000 km2 (315,000 sq mi)
1618[9][10]1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1582[8]
8,000,000
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Crown of the Kingdom of Poland
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Habsburg monarchy
Russian Empire
Kingdom of Prussia

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,

Roman Catholicism served as the state religion.[3][19]

The Commonwealth was established as a single entity by the

Jogaila of Lithuania, who was crowned jure uxoris King of Poland.[20][21] Their descendant, Sigismund II Augustus, enforced the merger to strengthen frontiers of his dominion and maintain unity as he remained childless. His death in 1572 marked the end of the Jagiellonian dynasty and introduced an elective monarchy, whereupon members of domestic noble families or external dynasties were elected to the throne
for life.

The state possessed an idiosyncratic system of governance and its Golden Liberty placed controls upon monarchical authority, a precursor to modern concepts of democracy.[22] Legislation was enacted by the General Sejm, a bicameral legislature (parliament) administered by the szlachta nobility, and the king was bound to comply with the constitutional principles dictated by the Henrician Articles. The country also maintained unprecedented levels of ethnic diversity and relative religious tolerance, guaranteed by the Warsaw Confederation Act of 1573,[23][24][d] though the degree of religious freedom was not always uniform and varied over time.[25] Poland acted as the dominant partner in the union.[26] Polonization of nobles was generally voluntary,[27][26] but Catholicism imposed across the large realm was met with resistance from some minorities.[28]

After several decades of prosperity,

United States Constitution.[34][35][36][37]

Name

The official name of the state was the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (

Latin: Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae). The Latin term was usually employed in international treaties and diplomacy.[38]

In the 17th century and later it was also known as the 'Most Serene Commonwealth of Poland' (

Latin: Serenissima Res Publica Poloniae),[39] the Commonwealth of the Polish Kingdom,[40] or the Commonwealth of Poland.[41]

Western Europeans often simplified the name to 'Poland' and in most past and modern sources it is referred to as the Kingdom of Poland, or just Poland.

Latin: Res Publica Utriusque Nationis) were used in the Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations.[44] The English term Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and German Polen-Litauen are seen as renderings of the 'Commonwealth of Two Nations' variant.[38]

Other informal names include the 'Republic of Nobles' (Polish: Rzeczpospolita szlachecka) and the 'First Commonwealth' (Polish: I Rzeczpospolita) or 'First Polish Republic' (Polish: Pierwsza Rzeczpospolita), the latter relatively common in historiography to distinguish it from the Second Polish Republic.

History

Prelude (1370–1569)

The Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1526.

The

Casimir the Great, died on 5 November 1370 without fathering a legitimate male heir.[47] Consequently, the crown passed onto his Hungarian nephew, Louis of Anjou, who ruled the Kingdom of Hungary in a personal union with Poland.[47] A fundamental step in developing extensive ties with Lithuania was a succession crisis arising in the 1380s.[48] Louis died on 10 September 1382 and, like his uncle, did not produce a son to succeed him. His two daughters, Mary and Jadwiga (Hedwig), held claims to the vast dual realm.[47]

The Polish lords rejected Mary in favour of her younger sister Jadwiga, partly due to Mary's association with

Jogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Jogaila was a lifelong pagan and vowed to adopt Catholicism upon marriage by signing the Union of Krewo on 14 August 1385.[51] The Act imposed Christianity in Lithuania and transformed Poland into a diarchy, a kingdom ruled over by two sovereigns; their descendants and successive monarchs held the titles of king and grand duke respectively.[52] The ultimate clause dictated that Lithuania was to be merged in perpetuity (perpetuo applicare) with the Polish Kingdom; however, this did not take effect until 1569.[53] Jogaila was crowned as Władysław II Jagiełło at Wawel Cathedral on 4 March 1386.[54]

Union of Lublin (1569)

Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
in 1569.

Several minor agreements were struck before unification, notably the

Union of Vilnius and Radom and the Union of Grodno. Lithuania's vulnerable position and rising tensions on its eastern flank persuaded the nobles to seek a closer bond with Poland.[55] The idea of a federation presented better economic opportunities, whilst securing Lithuania's borders from hostile states to the north, south and east.[56] Lesser Lithuanian nobility were eager to share the personal privileges and political liberties enjoyed by the Polish szlachta, but did not accept Polish demands for the incorporation of the Grand Duchy into Poland as a mere province, with no sense of autonomy.[57] Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł (Radvila Rudasis) and his cousin Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł, two prominent nobles and military commanders in Lithuania, vocally opposed the union.[58]

A fierce proponent of a single unified Commonwealth was Sigismund II Augustus, who was childless and ailing. According to historians, it was his active involvement which hastened the process and made the union possible.[59] A parliament (sejm) convened on 10 January 1569 in the city of Lublin, attended by envoys from both nations. It was agreed that the merger will take place the same year and both parliaments will be fused into a joint assembly.[60] No independent parliamentary convocation or diet was henceforth permitted.[60] Subjects of the Polish Crown were no longer restricted in purchasing land on Lithuanian territory and a single currency was established.[61] Whilst the military remained separate, a unified foreign policy meant that Lithuanian troops were obliged to contribute during a conflict not to their advantage.[62] As a result, several Lithuanian magnates deplored the accords and left the assembly in protest.[63] Sigismund II used his authority as grand duke and enforced the Act of Union in contumaciam. In fear, the absent nobles promptly returned to the negotiations.[64] The Union of Lublin was passed by the gathered deputies and signed by attendees on 1 July, thus creating the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[63]

Sigismund's death in 1572 was followed by an interregnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system; these adjustments significantly increased the power of the Polish nobility and established a truly elective monarchy.[65]

Apex and the Golden Age (1573–1648)

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extent in 1619.

On 11 May 1573,

Habsburg hegemony, ending skirmishes with the French-allied Ottomans, and profiting from the lucrative trade with France. Upon ascending the throne, Henry signed the contractual agreement known as the Pacta conventa and approbated the Henrician Articles.[66] The Act stated the fundamental principles of governance and constitutional law in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[67] In June 1574, Henry abandoned Poland and headed back to claim the French crown following the death of his brother and predecessor, Charles IX.[68]
The throne was subsequently declared vacant.

The interregnum concluded on 12 December 1575 when primate

Ducal Prussia initially refused to recognise the Transylvanian as their ruler.[72] The wealthy port city of Gdańsk (Danzig) staged a revolt, and, with the help of Denmark, blockaded maritime trade to neutral Elbląg (Elbing).[73] Báthory, unable to penetrate the city's extensive fortifications, succumbed to the demands for greater privileges and freedoms.[73] However, his successful Livonian campaign ended in the annexation of Livonia and the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (modern-day Estonia and Latvia, respectively), thus expanding the Commonwealth's influence into the Baltics.[74] Most importantly, Poland gained the Hanseatic city of Riga on the Baltic Sea
.

Sigismund III Vasa, who reigned between 1587 and 1632, presided over an era of prosperity and territorial expansion of the Commonwealth.

In 1587,

Charles IX Vasa.[80] In Poland, the Zebrzydowski rebellion was brutally suppressed.[81]

Sigismund III then initiated a policy of expansionism, and invaded Russia in 1609 when that country was plagued by a civil war known as the Time of Troubles. In July 1610, the outnumbered Polish force comprising winged hussars defeated the Russians at the Battle of Klushino, which enabled the Poles to take and occupy Moscow for the next two years.[82] The disgraced Vasili IV of Russia was transported in a cage to Warsaw where he paid a tribute to Sigismund; Vasili was later murdered in captivity.[83] The Commonwealth forces were eventually driven out on 4 November 1612 (celebrated as Unity Day in Russia). The war concluded with a truce that granted Poland–Lithuania extensive territories in the east and marked its largest territorial expansion.[84] At least five million Russians died between 1598 and 1613, the result of continuous conflict, famine and Sigismund's invasion.[85]

Sejm (parliament) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the early 17th century

The

Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21) forced Poland to withdraw from Moldavia in southeastern Europe, but Sigismund's victory over the Turks at Khotyn diminished the supremacy of the Sultanate and eventually led to the murder of Osman II.[86] This secured the Turkish frontier for the duration of Sigismund's rule. In spite of the victories in the Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629), the exhausted Commonwealth army signed the Treaty of Altmark which ceded much of Livonia to Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus.[87] At the same time, the country's powerful parliament was dominated by nobles (Pic. 2) who were reluctant to get involved in the Thirty Years' War; this neutrality spared the country from the ravages of a political-religious conflict that devastated most of contemporary Europe.[88]

During this period, Poland was experiencing a cultural awakening and extensive developments in arts and architecture; the first Vasa king openly sponsored foreign painters, craftsmen, musicians and engineers, who settled in the Commonwealth at his request.[89]

Sigismund's eldest son,

Ladislaus succeeded him as Władysław IV in 1632 with no major opposition.[90] A skilled tactician, he invested in artillery, modernised the army and fiercely defended the Commonwealth's eastern borders.[91] Under the Treaty of Stuhmsdorf, he reclaimed regions of Livonia and the Baltics which were lost during the Polish-Swedish wars.[92] Unlike his father who worshipped the Habsburgs, Władysław sought closer ties with France and married Marie Louise Gonzaga, daughter of Charles I Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, in 1646.[93]

Deluge, rebellions and Vienna (1648–1696)

Battle of Vienna
in 1683.

The Commonwealth's power and stability began waning after a series of blows during the following decades. Władysław's brother,

John II Casimir, proved to be weak and impotent. The multicultural and mega-diverse federation already suffered domestic problems. As persecution of religious and ethnic minorities strengthened, several groups started to rebel.[citation needed
]

A major rebellion of self-governed

Treaty of Pereyaslav, for protection by the Russian Tsar. In 1651, in the face of a growing threat from Poland, and forsaken by his Tatar allies, Khmelnytsky asked the Tsar to incorporate Ukraine as an autonomous duchy under Russian protection. Russian annexation of Zaporizhian Ukraine gradually supplanted Polish influence in that part of Europe. In the years following, Polish settlers, nobles, Catholics and Jews
became the victims of retaliation massacres instigated by the Cossacks in their dominions.

The other blow to the Commonwealth was a Swedish invasion in 1655, known as the Deluge, which was supported by troops of Transylvanian Duke George II Rákóczi and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. Under the Treaty of Bromberg in 1657, Catholic Poland was forced to renounce its suzerainty over Protestant Prussia; in 1701 the once-insignificant duchy was transformed into the Kingdom of Prussia, which became a major European power in the 18th century and proved to be Poland's most enduring foe.[citation needed]

In the late 17th century, the king of the weakened Commonwealth,

Danube River, never again to threaten central Europe.[96]

Political turmoil and the enlightenment (1697–1771)

Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, wearing the Order of the White Eagle which he established in 1705.

John Sobieski's death in 1696 arguably ended the period of national sovereignty, and Poland's relative authority over the region dwindled swiftly. By the 18th century, destabilization of its political system brought the Commonwealth to the brink of

Louis XIV of France heavily invested in François Louis, Prince of Conti, in opposition to James Louis Sobieski, Maximilian Emanuel of Bavaria and Frederick Augustus of Saxony.[101] The latter's conversion from Lutheranism to Catholicism awed the conservative magnates and Pope Innocent XII, who in turn voiced their endorsement.[102] Imperial Russia and Habsburg Austria also contributed by financing Frederick, whose election took place in June 1697. Many questioned the legality of his elevation to the throne; it was speculated that the Prince of Conti had received more votes and was the rightful heir. Frederick hurried with his armies to Poland to quell any opposition. He was crowned as Augustus II in September and Conti's brief military engagement near Gdańsk in November of the same year proved fruitless.[103]

The House of Wettin ruled Poland–Lithuania and Saxony simultaneously, dividing power between the two states. In spite of his controversial means of attaining power, Augustus II lavishly spent on the arts and left an extensive cultural and architectural (Baroque) legacy in both countries. In Poland, he expanded Wilanów and facilitated the refurbishment of the Warsaw Royal Castle into a modern palatial residence.[104] Countless landmarks and monuments in the city bear a name referencing the Saxon kings, notably Saxon Garden, Saxon Axis and the former Saxon Palace.[105] The period saw the development of urban planning, street allocation, hospitals, schools (Collegium Nobilium), public parks and libraries (Załuski Library). First manufactories producing on a mass scale were opened to satisfy the demands of the nobility as consumers.[106]

Warsaw near the end of the Commonwealth's existence. Paintings by Bernardo Bellotto, 1770s

At the height of the Great Northern War a coalition (Warsaw Confederation) against Augustus II was formed by Stanisław Leszczyński and other magnates sponsored by Sweden. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formally neutral at this point, as Augustus entered the war as Elector of Saxony. Disregarding Polish negotiation proposals supported by the Swedish parliament, Charles crossed into the Commonwealth and vanquished the Saxe-Polish forces at the Battle of Kliszów in 1702 and at the Battle of Pułtusk in 1703.[107] Charles then succeeded in dethroning Augustus and coercing the Sejm (parliament) to replace him with Stanisław in 1704.[108] Augustus regained the throne in 1709,[109] but his own death in 1733 sparked the War of the Polish Succession in which Stanisław once more attempted to seize the crown, this time with the support of France.[110] The Pacification Sejm culminated in Augustus III succeeding his father.[111]

The relative peace and inactivity that followed only weakened Poland's reputation on the world stage.[112] Aleksander Brückner noted that Polish customs and traditions were abandoned in favour of everything foreign, and neighbouring states continued to exploit Poland to their advantage.[112] Moreover, Western Europe's increasing exploitation of resources in the Americas rendered the Commonwealth's supplies less crucial which resulted in financial losses.[113] Augustus III spent little time in the Commonwealth, instead preferring the Saxon city of Dresden. He appointed Heinrich von Brühl as viceroy and minister of Polish affairs who in turn left the politics to Polish magnate families, such as the Czartoryskis and the Radziwiłłs.[114] It was also during this period that the Polish Enlightenment began to sprout.

Partitions (1772–1795)

Partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795.

In 1764, aristocrat Stanisław August Poniatowski was elected monarch with the connivance and support of his former lover Catherine the Great, a German noblewoman who became Empress of Russia.[115]

Poniatowski's attempts at reform were met with staunch resistance both internally and externally. Any goal of stabilizing the Commonwealth was dangerous for its ambitious and aggressive neighbours. Like his predecessors, he sponsored artists and architects. In 1765 he founded the Warsaw Corps of Cadets, the first state school in Poland for all classes of society.[116] In 1773 the king and parliament formed the Commission of National Education, the first Ministry of Education in European history.[117][118] In 1792, the king ordered the creation of Virtuti Militari, the oldest military decoration still in use.[119] Stanisław August also admired the culture of Ancient kingdoms, particularly Rome and Greece; Neoclassicism became the dominant form of architectural and cultural expression.

Politically, however, the vast Commonwealth was in steady decline and by 1768, it started to be considered by Russians as a

May Constitution, came too late. The country was partitioned in three stages by the Russian Empire, the German Kingdom of Prussia, and the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy. By 1795, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map of Europe. Poland and Lithuania were not re-established as independent countries until 1918.[123]

State organization and politics

Golden Liberty

Royal Castle in Warsaw was the formal residence of Polish kings after the capital was transferred from Kraków
in 1596
The Crown Tribunal in Lublin was the highest court of appeals in the Kingdom of Poland
appeal court for the Lithuanian nobility in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

The political doctrine of the Commonwealth was our state is a republic under the presidency of the King.

King Henry's Articles as well as in pacta conventa, negotiated at the time of his election.[67]

The monarch's power was limited in favour of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to pledge to uphold the Henrician Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of

religious tolerance). Over time, the Henrician Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point onwards, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of senators. The Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones).[67]

The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the "

Latin: Aurea Libertas or Polish
: Złota Wolność, a term used from 1573 on), included:

The three regions (see below) of the Commonwealth enjoyed a degree of

poseł (deputy) to the national Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had its own separate army, treasury and most other official institutions.[126][127]

Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar

This political system unusual for its time stemmed from the ascendance of the szlachta noble class over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of:

  • confederation and federation, with regard to the broad autonomy of its regions. It is, however, difficult to decisively call the Commonwealth either confederation or federation, as it had some qualities of both;
  • oligarchy, as only the szlachta (nobility) – around 15% of the population – had political rights;[94]
  • democracy, since all the szlachta were equal in rights and privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). Also, the 15% of Commonwealth population who enjoyed those political rights (the szlachta)[131] was a substantially larger percentage than in majority European countries even in the nineteenth century;[132] note that in 1820 in France only about 1.5% of the male adult population had the right to vote, and in 1840 in Belgium, only about 5%.[131][132]
  • elective monarchy, since the monarch, elected by the szlachta, was Head of State;
  • constitutional monarchy, since the monarch was bound by pacta conventa and other laws, and the szlachta could disobey any king's decrees they deemed illegal.

Magnate oligarchy

The Republic at the Zenith of Its Power, the Royal Election of 1573

The end of the Jagiellonian dynasty in 1572 – after nearly two centuries – disrupted the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government. Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility.[67]

When presented with periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not establish a strong and long-lasting

Deluge (1655), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline.[133]

The

Polish magnates, and the transformation of szlachta democracy into magnate oligarchy. The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies bribed[134][135] by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over a century, from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th, while its neighbours stabilised their internal affairs and increased their military might.[citation needed
]

Late reforms

The Constitution of 3 May adopted in 1791 was the first modern constitution in Europe.

The Commonwealth did eventually make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in 1791 the Constitution of 3 May 1791, which historian Norman Davies calls the first of its kind in Europe.[37] The revolutionary Constitution recast the erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian federal state with a hereditary monarchy and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system.

The new constitution:

These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors, which had been content to leave the Commonwealth alone as a weak buffer state, but reacted strongly to attempts by king

Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin drafted the act for the Targowica Confederation, referring to the constitution as the "contagion of democratic ideas".[138] Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria used it as a pretext for further territorial expansion.[137] Prussian minister Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy",[139] fearing that a strengthened Poland would once again dominate Prussia.[136][140] In the end, the 3 May Constitution was never fully implemented, and the Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after its adoption.[141]

Economy

Cereals exports in the years 1619–1799. Agriculture, once extremely profitable to the nobility, became much less so after the mid-17th century.

The economy of the Commonwealth was predominantly based on agricultural output and trade, though there was an abundance of

glassworks and brickyards.[142] Some major cities were home to craftsmen, jewellers and clockmakers.[142] The majority of industries and trades were concentrated in the Kingdom of Poland; the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was more rural and its economy was driven by farming and clothmaking.[142] Mining developed in the south-west region of Poland which was rich in natural resources such as lead, coal, copper and salt.[143] The currency used in Poland–Lithuania was the złoty (meaning "the golden") and its subunit, the grosz. Foreign coins in the form of ducats, thalers and shillings were widely accepted and exchanged.[144] The city of Gdańsk had the privilege of minting its own coinage.[145] In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko began issuing the first Polish banknotes.[146]

The country played a significant role in the supply of

luxury goods (e.g. tapestries, Pic. 5), furniture, fabrics as well as industrial products like steel and tools.[155]

The agricultural sector was dominated by

serfs to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes and nobles in the early years of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the grain trade.[157] The economic strength of Commonwealth grain trade waned from the late 17th century on. Trade relationships were disrupted by the wars, and the Commonwealth proved unable to improve its transport infrastructure or its agricultural practices.[158] Serfs in the region were increasingly tempted to flee.[159] The Commonwealth's major attempts at countering this problem and improving productivity consisted of increasing serfs' workload and further restricting their freedoms in a process known as export-led serfdom.[158][159]

The owner of a folwark usually signed a contract with merchants of Gdańsk, who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain north to that seaport on the Baltic Sea.[160] Countless rivers and waterways in the Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes, including the Vistula, Pilica, Bug, San, Nida, Wieprz, and Neman. The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with river ports and granaries. Most of the river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber. Grodno become an important site after formation of a customs post at Augustów in 1569, which became a checkpoint for merchants travelling to the Crown lands from the Grand Duchy.[161]

Ducat
Coat of arms of the Commonwealth on a 15 ducat coin, 1617
Banknote
5-złoty banknote issued in 1794

Urban population of the Commonwealth was low compared to Western Europe. Exact numbers depend on calculation methods. According to one source, the urban population of the Commonwealth was about 20% of the total in the 17th century, compared to approximately 50% in the Netherlands and Italy (

trade fairs in the Commonwealth were held at Lublin.[163]

Several ancient

Persia to the Commonwealth were incorrectly known as "Polish rugs" (French: Polonaise) in Western Europe.[167]

Military

Winged Hussars were a heavy cavalry formation serving the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.

The military in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth evolved from the merger of the armies from the Polish Kingdom and from the Grand Lithuanian Duchy, though each state maintained its own division.

general or supreme commander in other countries. Monarchs could not declare war or summon an army without the consent of the Sejm parliament or the Senate.[169] The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy never played a major role in the military structure from the mid-17th century onwards.[170]

The most prestigious formation of the two respective armes were their 16th- and 17th-century heavy cavalry in the form of Winged Hussars (husaria), whereas the Polish Royal Guards and Lithuanian Guards [pl] were the elite of the infantry; the regiments were supervised by the king and his family.[171] In 1788, the Great Sejm approved landslide reforms and defined future structures of the military; the Crown Army was to be split into four divisions, with seventeen field infantry regiments and eight cavalry brigades excluding special units; the Lithuanian Army was to be subdivided into two divisions, eight field regiments and two cavalry brigades excluding special units.[172] If implemented, the reform predicted an army of almost 100,000 men.[173]

The armies of those states differed from the organization common in other parts of Europe; according to Bardach, the

feudal levy of mostly noble knights-landholders), and the wojsko zaciężne, recruited by the Polish commanders for the conflict. It differed from other European mercenary formations in that it was commanded by Polish officers, and dissolved after the conflict has ended.[176]

Several years before the Union of Lublin, the Polish obrona potoczna was reformed, as the

royal lands for the purpose of maintaining this formation.[176] This formation was also paid for by the king, and in the peacetime, numbered about 3,500–4,000 men according to Bardach;[176] Brzezinski gives the range of 3,000–5,000.[177] It was composed mostly of the light cavalry units manned by nobility (szlachta) and commanded by hetmans.[176][178] Often, in wartime, the Sejm would legislate a temporary increase in the size of the wojsko kwarciane.[176]

Following the end of the Commonwealth, the Polish-Lithuanian military tradition would be continued by the Napoleonic Polish Legions and the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw.[179]

Culture

Science and literature

Multi-stage rocket from Artis Magnæ Artilleriæ pars prima by Kazimierz Siemienowicz

The Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by

Protestant and Muslim (Sufi) communities. In the 18th century, the French Catholic Rulhiere wrote of 16th century Poland: "This country, which in our day we have seen divided on the pretext of religion, is the first state in Europe that exemplified tolerance. In this state, mosques arose between churches and synagogues."[citation needed] The Commonwealth gave rise to the famous Christian sect of the Polish Brethren, antecedents of British and American Unitarianism.[180]

With its political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to

Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki (1530–1607) and Piotr Skarga (1536–1612). Later, works by Stanisław Staszic (1755–1826) and Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812) helped pave the way for the Constitution of 3 May 1791, which Norman Davies calls the first of its kind in Europe.[37]

Protestants were persecuted under the Counter Reformation.[180][184]

The works of many Commonwealth authors are considered classics, including those of Jan Kochanowski (Pic. 10), Wacław Potocki, Ignacy Krasicki, and Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz. Many szlachta members wrote memoirs and diaries. Perhaps the most famous are the Memoirs of Polish History by Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł (1595–1656) and the Memoirs of Jan Chryzostom Pasek (ca. 1636–ca. 1701). Jakub Sobieski (1590–1646) (father of John III Sobieski) wrote notable diaries. During the Khotyn expedition in 1621 he wrote a diary called Commentariorum chotinensis belli libri tres (Diary of the Chocim War), which was published in 1646 in Gdańsk. It was used by Wacław Potocki as a basis for his epic poem, Transakcja wojny chocimskiej (The Progress of the War of Chocim). He also authored instructions for the journey of his sons to Kraków (1640) and France (1645), a good example of liberal education of the era.[185]

Art and music

Polonaise dress
Polonaise bed
Polonaise dress (left) and the Polish bed (right), both from the 18th century

The art and music of the Commonwealth was largely shaped by prevailing European trends, though the country's minorities, foreigners as well as native folk cultures also contributed to its versatile nature. A common art form of the

Wawel Royal Castle in Kraków.[190]

The economic, cultural and political ties between

Louis XV of France in 1725, Polish culture began to flourish at the Palace of Versailles.[192] Polish beds (lit à la polonaise) draped with baldachins became a centrepiece of Louis XV furniture in French chateaus.[193] Folk flower motifs as well as Polish fashion were popularised in the form of a back-draped polonaise dress (robe à la polonaise) worn by aristocrats at Versailles.[194]

The religious cultures of Poland–Lithuania coexisted and penetrated each other for the entirety of the Commonwealth's history – the

Mary in the predominantly Latin territories of today's Poland (Black Madonna) and Lithuania (Our Lady of the Gate of Dawn).[197] Conversely, Latin infiltration into Ruthenian Orthodox and Protestant art was also conventional (Pic. 3).[198]

Music was a common feature of religious and secular events. To that end many noblemen founded church and school choirs, and employed their own ensembles of musicians. Some, like

Architecture

Krasiczyn Castle was built between 1580 and 1631 in the mannerist style.

The architecture of the cities in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth reflected a combination of Polish, German and Italian trends.

tenements were fitted with central Italianate courtyards composed of arched loggias, colonnades, bay windows, balconies, portals and ornamental balustrades.[200] Ceiling frescos, sgraffito, plafonds and coffering (patterned ceilings; Polish kaseton; from Italian cassettone) were widespread.[201] Rooftops were generally covered with terracotta rooftiles. The most distinguishable feature of Polish Mannerism are decorative "attics" above the cornice on the façade.[202] Cities in northern Poland–Lithuania and in Livonia adopted the Hanseatic (or "Dutch") style as their primary form of architectural expression, comparable to that of the Netherlands, Belgium, northern Germany and Scandinavia.[203]

Wilanów Palace, completed in 1696, exemplifies the opulence of royal and noble residences in the Commonwealth.

The introduction of

St. Casimir Chapel of the Vilnius Cathedral and Vasa Chapel at Wawel Cathedral) were extensively decorated with black marble, which became popular after the mid-17th century.[205]

Magnates often undertook construction projects as monuments to themselves: churches, cathedrals, monasteries (Pic. 14), and palaces like the present-day Presidential Palace in Warsaw and Pidhirtsi Castle built by Grand Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski. The largest projects involved entire towns, although in time many of them would lapse into obscurity or were abandoned. These towns were generally named after the sponsoring magnate. Among the most prominent is Zamość, founded by Jan Zamoyski and designed by the Italian architect Bernardo Morando as an ideal city. The magnates throughout Poland competed with the kings. The monumental castle Krzyżtopór, built in the style palazzo in fortezza between 1627 and 1644, had several courtyards surrounded by fortifications. Similar fortified complexes include castles in Łańcut and Krasiczyn.[citation needed]

Nieborów Palace designed by Dutch architect Tylman van Gameren and built in 1697

The fascination with the culture and art of the

entre cour et jardin (between the entrance court and the garden). Its architecture – a merger of European art with old Commonwealth building traditions are visible in Wilanów Palace in Warsaw (Pic. 15), Branicki Palace in Białystok, Potocki Palace in Radzyń Podlaski, Raczyński Palace in Rogalin, Nieborów Palace and Kozłówka Palace near Lubartów. Lesser nobility resided in country manor houses known as dworek. Neoclassicism replaced Baroque by the second half of the 18th century – the last ruler of the Poland–Lithuania, Stanisław August Poniatowski, greatly admired the classical architecture of Ancient Rome and promoted it as a symbol of the Polish Enlightenment.[207] The Palace on the Isle and the exterior of St. Anne's Church
in Warsaw are part of the neoclassical legacy of the former Commonwealth.

Szlachta and Sarmatism

Sarmatian woman
The First Lady of the Republic[208]Elżbieta Sieniawska portrayed in Sarmata pose and in a male coat called delia
Sarmatian man
Sarmatian style for men; moustache, red kontusz coat, gold-silk pas with blue sash of the Order of the White Eagle

The prevalent ideology of the szlachta became "Sarmatism", named after the Sarmatians, alleged ancestors of the Poles.[140] This belief system was an important part of szlachta culture, penetrating all aspects of its life. Sarmatism enshrined equality among szlachta, horseback riding, tradition, provincial quaint life in manor houses, peace and pacifism; championed oriental-inspired souvenirs or attire for men (żupan, kontusz, sukmana, pas kontuszowy, delia, szabla); favoured European Baroque architecture; endorsed Latin as a language of thought or expression; and served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility by creating an almost nationalistic sense of unity and of pride in Golden Liberty.[140]

In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism represented a positive cultural movement: it supported religious belief, honesty, national pride, courage, equality and freedom. In time, however, it became distorted. Late extreme Sarmatism turned belief into bigotry, honesty into political naïveté, pride into arrogance, courage into stubbornness and freedom into anarchy.[209] The faults of Sarmatism were blamed for the demise of the country from the late 18th century onwards. Criticism, often one-sided and exaggerated, was used by the Polish reformists to push for radical changes. This self-deprecation was accompanied by works of German, Russian and Austrian historians, who tried to prove that it was Poland itself that was to blame for its fall.[210]

Demographics

Social strata in the Commonwealth's society in 1655. From left: Jew, barber surgeon, painter, butcher, musician, tailor, barmaid, pharmacist, shoemaker, goldsmith, merchant and Armenian

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was immensely

Olędrzy), who were either categorised as merchants, settlers or refugees fleeing religious persecution.[213]

Prior to the union with Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland was much more homogenous; approximately 70% of the population was Polish and Roman Catholic.[214] With the creation of the Commonwealth, the number of Poles in comparison to the total population decreased to 50%.[215] In 1569, the population stood at 7 million, with roughly 4.5 million Poles, 750,000 Lithuanians, 700,000 Jews and 2 million Ruthenians.[216] Historians Michał Kopczyński and Wojciech Tygielski suggest that with the territorial expansion after the Truce of Deulino in 1618, the Commonwealth's population reached 12 million people, of which Poles constituted only 40%.[215][17] At that time the nobility made up 10% of the entire population and the burghers around 15%.[17] The average population density per square kilometer was: 24 in Mazovia, 23 in Lesser Poland, 19 in Greater Poland, 12 in Lublin palatinate, 10 in the Lwów area, 7 in Podolia and Volhynia, and 3 in the Kiev Voivodeship. There was a tendency for the people from the more densely inhabited western territories to migrate eastwards.[217]

Density of urban network of the Commonwealth per each voivodeship in 1650

A sudden change in the country's demographics occurred in the mid-17th century.

Deluge followed by famine in the period from 1648 to 1657 were accountable for at least 4 million deaths.[17] Coupled with further territorial losses, by 1717 the population had fallen to 9 million.[17] The population slowly recovered throughout the 18th century; just before the first partition of Poland in 1772, the Commonwealth's population was 14 million, including around 1 million nobles.[218] In 1792, the population of Poland was around 11 million and included 750,000 nobles.[218]

The most multicultural and robust city in the country was

Litvaks
.

Despite guaranteed religious tolerance, gradual Polonization and Counter-Reformation sought to minimise the Commonwealth's diversity; the aim was to root out some minorities by imposing the Polish language, Latin, Polish culture and the Roman Catholic religion where possible.[222] By the late 18th century, the Lithuanian language, culture and identity became vulnerable;[222] the country's name was changed to "Commonwealth of Poland" in 1791.

Religion

Jesuit order

The

counter-reformation in Poland, relying heavily on methods of persuasion and legal means. As a result, compared to many other European countries, the conflict between the Catholics and the Protestants in Poland was relatively peaceful.[225][226]

Poland retained religious freedom laws during an era when religious persecution was an everyday occurrence in the rest of Europe.

, were less optimistic about Poland's religious frivolity.

"This country became a place of shelter for heretics" – Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius, papal legate to Poland.[228]

Original act of the Warsaw Confederation in 1573, the first act of religious freedom in Europe

To be Polish, in remote and multi-ethnic parts of the Commonwealth, was then much less an index of

social institutions had proven an irresistible magnet for the non-Polish nobility in the Commonwealth.[94] Many referred to themselves as "gente Ruthenus, natione Polonus" (Ruthenian by blood, Polish by nationality) since the 16th century onwards.[230]

Kamieniec Podolski was converted into a mosque during the Turkish occupation between 1672 and 1699, with the 33-meter minaret being added at that time.[232]

As a result, in the eastern territories a Polish (or Polonised) aristocracy dominated a peasantry whose great majority was neither Polish nor Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge

Reformed churches. The Commonwealth had also one of the largest Jewish diasporas in the world – by the mid-16th century 80% of the world's Jews lived in Poland (Pic. 16).[235]

Until the

Reformed religion. After the Counter-Reformation, when the Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusively Catholic.[236]

The Crown had about double the population of Lithuania and five times the income of the latter's treasury. As with other countries, the borders, area and population of the Commonwealth varied over time. After the

Peace of Jam Zapolski (1582), the Commonwealth had approximately 815,000 km2 area and a population of 7.5 million.[237] After the Truce of Deulino (1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 990,000 km2 and a population of 11–12 million (including some 4 million Poles and close to a million Lithuanians).[238]

Languages

First anniversary anthem of the Constitution of 3 May 1791 (1792) in Hebrew, Polish, German and French

Legacy

The

Republic of Lithuania, established on 16 February 1918, saw the participation of the Lithuanian state in the old Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth mostly in a negative light at the early stages of regaining its independence,[267] although this attitude has been changing in recent years.[268]

Administrative divisions

Outline of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with its major subdivisions after the 1618 Truce of Deulino, superimposed on present-day national borders.
  Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, Commonwealth fief

While the term "Poland" was also commonly used to denote this whole polity, Poland was in fact only part of a greater whole – the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which comprised primarily two parts:

  • the
    Crown of the Polish Kingdom
    (Poland proper), colloquially "the Crown"
  • the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, colloquially "Lithuania"

The Commonwealth was further divided into smaller administrative units known as

ziemia subunit of administration.[citation needed
]

The lands that once belonged to the Commonwealth are now largely distributed among several Central and East European countries: Poland, Ukraine, Moldova (Transnistria), Belarus, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia.[269][270] Also some small towns in Upper Hungary (today mostly Slovakia), became a part of Poland in the Treaty of Lubowla (Spiš towns).

Other notable parts of the Commonwealth, without respect to region or voivodeship divisions, include:

Topographical map of the Commonwealth in 1764

Commonwealth borders shifted with wars and treaties, sometimes several times in a decade, especially in the eastern and southern parts. After the Peace of Jam Zapolski (1582), the Commonwealth had approximately 815,000 km2 area and a population of 7.5 million.[237] After the Truce of Deulino (1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 1 million km2 (990,000 km2) and a population of about 11 million.[238]

Geography

In the 16th century, the Polish bishop and

atlas, entitled Poland: about Its Location, People, Culture, Offices and the Polish Commonwealth, which was regarded as one of the most comprehensive guides to the country.[272]

Kromer's works and other contemporary maps, such as those of Gerardus Mercator, show the Commonwealth as mostly plains. The Commonwealth's southeastern part, the Kresy, was famous for its steppes. The Carpathian Mountains formed part of the southern border, with the Tatra Mountain chain the highest, and the Baltic Sea formed the Commonwealth's northern border. As with most European countries at the time, the Commonwealth had extensive forest cover, especially in the east. Today, what remains of the Białowieża Forest constitutes the last largely intact primeval forest in Europe.[273]

Image gallery

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Pro Fide, Lege et Rege was the motto since the 18th century.

a. ^ Name in native and official languages:

b. ^ Some historians date the change of the Polish capital from Kraków to Warsaw between 1595 and 1611, although Warsaw was not officially designated capital until 1793.[280] The Commonwealth Sejm began meeting in Warsaw soon after the Union of Lublin and its rulers generally maintained their courts there, although coronations continued to take place in Kraków.[280] The modern concept of a single capital city was to some extent inapplicable in the feudal and decentralised Commonwealth.[280] Warsaw is described by some historians as the capital of the entire Commonwealth.[281][282] Wilno, the capital of the Grand Duchy,[283][284][285] is sometimes called the second capital of the entity.[286][287]

Notes

  1. ^ Royal banner used by the Vasa dynasty
  2. ^
    • Polish: Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów;
    • Latin: Res Publica Utriusque Nationis;
    • Lithuanian: Abiejų Tautų Respublika, Žečpospolita;
    • German: Republik beider Nationen, Republik beider Völker, Republik Polen-Litauen;
    • Ukrainian: Річ Посполита;
    • Belarusian: Рэч Паспалітая;
    • Ruthenian: Рѣчъ Посполита
  3. ^
    • Polish: Królestwo Polskie i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie;
    • Latin: Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae;
    • Lithuanian: Lenkijos Karalystė ir Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė;
    • German: Königreich Polen und des Großfürstentums Litauen
    • Ukrainian: Королівство Польське і Велике князівство Литовське;
    • Belarusian: Польскае Каралеўства і Вялікае Княства Літоўскае
  4. Robert Burton, in his The Anatomy of Melancholy
    , first published in 1621, writes of Poland: "Poland is a receptacle of all religions, where Samosetans, Socinians, Photinians ..., Arians, Anabaptists are to be found"; "In Europe, Poland and Amsterdam are the common sanctuaries [for Jews]".

References

  1. ^ a b Partitions of Poland at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  2. ^ a b Jagiellonian University Centre for European studies, "A Very Short History of Kraków", see: "1596 administrative capital, the tiny village of Warsaw". Archived from the original on 12 March 2009. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
  3. ^ . formed part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth which was ruled by Catholic monarchs who made Roman Catholicism the state religio...
  4. ^ a b Janusz Sykała: Od Polan mieszkających w lasach – historia Polski – aż do króla Stasia, Gdansk, 2010.
  5. ^ a b Georg Ziaja: Lexikon des polnischen Adels im Goldenen Zeitalter 1500–1600, p. 9.
  6. ^ "Artykuły henrykowskie – szlachecka prekonstytucja – Historia". polskieradio24.pl.
  7. ^ "Poland – The First Partition | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
  8. ^ .
  9. ^ Bertram Benedict (1919): A history of the great war. Bureau of national literature, inc. p. 21.
  10. ^ According to Panstwowe Przedsiebiorstwo Wydawnictw Kartograficznych: Atlas Historyczny Polski, wydanie X, 1990, p. 16, ~ 990.000 km2
  11. .
  12. ^ Zbigniew Pucek: Państwo i społeczeństwo 2012/1, Krakow, 2012, p. 17.
  13. ^ Norman Davies, Europe: A History, Pimlico 1997, p. 554: "Poland–Lithuania was another country which experienced its 'Golden Age' during the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The realm of the last Jagiellons was absolutely the largest state in Europe"
  14. . Retrieved 13 August 2011.
  15. ^ Bertram Benedict (1919). A history of the great war. Bureau of national literature, inc. p. 21. Retrieved 13 August 2011.
  16. ^ According to Panstwowe Przedsiebiorstwo Wydawnictw Kartograficznych: Atlas Historyczny Polski, wydanie X, 1990, p. 16, 990.000 km2
  17. ^
  18. ^ According to Panstwowe Przedsiebiorstwo Wydawnictw Kartograficznych: Atlas Historyczny Polski, wydanie X, 1990, p. 16, just over 9 million in 1618.
  19. ^
  20. ^ Gudavičius, Edvardas. "Lietuvos feodalinės visuomenės ir jos valdymo sistemos genezė: 2 dalis" (PDF). Ministry of the Interior (Lithuania) (in Lithuanian). p. 8. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
  21. ^ Spečiūnas, Vytautas. "Jonas Albrechtas". Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 18 November 2023.
  22. ISBN 963-9241-18-0, Google Print: p. 3, p. 12
  23. ^
  24. academic journal mission statement: "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was ... characterized by religious tolerance unusual in premodern Europe"
  25. .
  26. ^ .
  27. .
  28. .
  29. ^ "In the mid-1500s, united Poland was the largest state in Europe and perhaps the continent's most powerful state politically and militarily". "Poland". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 26 June 2009.
  30. .
  31. .
  32. p. 54.
  33. ^
    Economic History Review
    30:1 (March), pp. 18–32.
  34. .
  35. . May second oldest constitution.
  36. , p. 121.
  37. ^ .
  38. ^ a b c "Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae – definicja, synonimy, przykłady użycia". sjp.pwn.pl. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
  39. ^ a b Ex quo serenissima respublica Poloniae in corpore ad exempluin omnium aliarnm potentiarum, lilulum regiuin Borussiae recognoscere decrevit (...)
    Antoine-François-Claude Ferrand (1820). "Volume 1". Histoire des trois démembremens de la Pologne: pour faire suite à l'histoire de l'Anarchie de Pologne par Rulhière (in French). Deterville. p. 182.
  40. ^ the name given by Marcin Kromer in his work Polonia sive de situ, populis, moribus, magistratibus et re publica regni Polonici libri duo, 1577.
  41. ^ the therm used for instance in Zbior Deklaracyi, Not I Czynnosci Głownieyszych, Ktore Poprzedziły I Zaszły Pod Czas Seymu Pod Węzłem Konfederacyi Odprawuiącego Się Od Dnia 18. Wrzesnia 1772. Do 14 Maia 1773
  42. ^ Name used for the common state, Henryk Rutkowski, Terytorium, w: Encyklopedia historii gospodarczej Polski do 1945 roku, t. II, Warszawa 1981, s. 398.
  43. ^ Richard Buterwick. The Polish Revolution and the Catholic Church, 1788–1792: A Political History. Oxford University Press. 2012. pp. 5, xvii.
  44. ^ 1791 document signed by the King Stanislaw August "Zareczenie wzaiemne Oboyga Narodow" pp. 1, 5 [1]
  45. .
  46. ^ Jasienica 1997, pp. 30–32
  47. ^ a b c Halecki 1991, p. 52
  48. ^ Halecki 1991, p. 71
  49. .
  50. .
  51. ^ Jasienica 1997, p. 63
  52. ^ Halecki 1991, p. 155
  53. .
  54. ^ Butterwick 2021, pp. 12–14
  55. ^ Butterwick 2021
  56. .
  57. .
  58. .
  59. ^ a b Butterwick 2021, p. 21
  60. .
  61. ^ Pernal 2010, p. 10
  62. ^ a b Maniecky & Szajnocha 1869, p. 504
  63. ^ Maniecky, Wojciech; Szajnocha, Karol (1869). Dziennik Literacki (in Polish). Ossoliński. p. 504.
  64. ^ The death of Sigismund II Augustus in 1572 was followed by a three-year Interregnum during which adjustments were made in the constitutional system. The lower nobility was now included in the selection process, and the power of the monarch was further circumscribed in favor of the expanded noble class. From that point, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and constantly supervised by a group of senators.
    "The Elective Monarchy". Poland – The Historical Setting. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. 1992. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved July 15, 2011.
  65. ^ Bardach, Juliusz (1987). Historia państwa i prawa polskiego (in Polish). Warszawa: PWN. pp. 216–217.
  66. ^ a b c d Bardach 1987, pp. 216–217
  67. .
  68. ^ Besala, Jerzy; Biedrzycka, Agnieszka (2005). Stefan Batory: Polski Słownik Biograficzny (in Polish). Vol. XLIII. p. 116.
  69. ^ a b Besala & Biedrzycka 2005, p. 116
  70. ^ Besala & Biedrzycka 2005, p. 117
  71. ^ Besala & Biedrzycka 2005, pp. 116–117
  72. ^ a b Besala & Biedrzycka 2005, pp. 118–119
  73. ^ Besala & Biedrzycka 2005, pp. 121
  74. ^ Szujski, Józef (1894). Dzieła Józefa Szujskiego. Dzieje Polski (in Polish). Vol. 3. Kraków: Szujski-Kluczycki. p. 139. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
  75. ^ pisze, Przemek (3 July 2013). "Bitwa pod Byczyną. Zamoyski upokarza Habsburgów i gwarantuje tron Zygmuntowi III – HISTORIA.org.pl – historia, kultura, muzea, matura, rekonstrukcje i recenzje historyczne". Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  76. ^ Kizwalter, Tomasz (1987). Kryzys Oświecenia a początki konserwatyzmu polskiego (in Polish). Warszawa (Warsaw): Uniwersytet Warszawski. p. 21. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
  77. ^ Szujski 1894, p. 161
  78. . Retrieved 14 January 2021.
  79. ^ Peterson 2014, p. 107
  80. . Retrieved 1 February 2021.
  81. . Retrieved 18 February 2021.
  82. . Retrieved 1 February 2021.
  83. . Retrieved 11 April 2019.
  84. . Retrieved 18 February 2021.
  85. ^ Dyer, Thomas Henry (1861). The History of Modern Europe. Vol. From the Fall of Constantinople, in 1453, to the War in the Crimea, in 1857. Volume 2. London: J. Murray. p. 504. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
  86. .
  87. ^ Gillespie 2017, p. 141
  88. . Retrieved 8 January 2021.
  89. ^ Czapliński, Władysław (1976). Władysław IV i jego czasy [Władysław IV and His Times] (in Polish). Warsaw: PW "Wiedza Poweszechna". pp. 102–118.
  90. ^ Czapliński 1976, p. 170
  91. ^ Czapliński 1976, p. 202
  92. ^ Czapliński 1976, pp. 353–356
  93. ^
  94. ^ Poland, the knight among nations, Louis Edwin Van Norman, New York: 1907, p. 18.
  95. .
  96. ^ Gintel, Jan (1971). Wiek XVIII–XIX. Polska: Wydawnictwo Literackie. p. 143.
  97. ^ Gintel 1971, p. 143
  98. ^ Instytut Badań Literackich (1969). Studia staropolskie. Vol. 24, 25. Polska: Zakład Ossolińskich. p. 172.
  99. ^ Instytut Badań Literackich 1969, p. 172
  100. ^ Borucki, Marek (1976). Jak w dawnej Polsce królów obierano. Polska: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza. pp. 138–143.
  101. .
  102. ^ Borucki 1976, pp. 138–143
  103. ^ Dobrowolski (1962). Historia sztuki polskiej w zarysie: Sztuka nowożytna. Polska: Wydawnictwo Literackie.
  104. .
  105. .
  106. .
  107. .
  108. ^ Tucker 2010, p. 710
  109. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Polish Succession War" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 981–982.
  110. ^ Lindsey, J. O. (ed). The Cambridge New Modern History, Volume 7.
  111. ^ a b Brückner 1931, p. 157
  112. . polish lithuanian commonwealth americas western europe.
  113. ^ Spórna 2003
  114. . Retrieved 26 September 2014.
  115. .
  116. .
  117. .
  118. .
  119. ^ Sužiedėlis 2011, p. xxv.
  120. ^ Andrzej Jezierski, Cecylia Leszczyńska, Historia gospodarcza Polski, 2003, s. 68.
  121. ^ Russia's Rise as a European Power, 1650–1750 Archived 5 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Jeremy Black, History Today, Vol. 36 Issue: 8, August 1986.
  122. . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  123. .
  124. ^ . Retrieved 3 September 2006.
  125. ^ Josef Macha (1974). Ecclesiastical Unification. Pont. Institutum Orientalium Studiorum. p. 154.
  126. .
  127. ^ Joanna Olkiewicz, Najaśniejsza Republika Wenecka (Most Serene Republic of Venice), Książka i Wiedza, 1972, Warszawa
  128. ]
  129. ^ Frost, Robert I. The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in northeastern Europe, 1558–1721. Harlow, England; New York: Longman's. 2000. Especially pp. 9–11, 114, 181, 323.
  130. ^ .
  131. ^ .
  132. .
  133. ^ ]
  134. ^ ]
  135. ]
  136. ^ Carl L. Bucki, The Constitution of May 3, 1791 Archived 5 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Text of a presentation made at the Polish Arts Club of Buffalo on the occasion of the celebrations of Poland's Constitution Day on 3 May 1996. Retrieved 20 March 2006.
  137. ^ ].
  138. ^ Niepodległość. Vol. 6. Polska: Fundacja "Polonia Restituta,". 1991. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  139. ^ a b c Sobiech, Marcin (2018). "Jak powstawała i co zawiera mapa Rzeczpospolitej Obojga Narodów". Exgeo (in Polish). Marcin Sobiech. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  140. ^ Kucharczuk 2011, p. 64
  141. ^ "shillings – Polish translation – Linguee". Linguee.com. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
  142. .
  143. ^ "Pierwsze polskie banknoty". Skarbnica Narodowa (in Polish). Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  144. ^ Gdańskie Towarzystwo Naukowe (1991). Seria popularno-naukowa "Pomorze Gdańskie" (in Polish). Vol. 19. Gdańsk: Towarzystwo Naukowe. p. 149. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  145. . Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  146. ^ a b Zsigmond Pál Pach, Zs. P. Pach (1970). The role of East-Central Europe in international trade, 16th and 17th centuries. Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 220.
  147. ^ .
  148. ^ Krzysztof Olszewski (2007). The Rise and Decline of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth due to Grain Trade. pp. 6–7.
  149. ^ Maciej Kobyliński. "Rzeczpospolita spichlerzem Europy". www.polinow.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 28 December 2009.
  150. .
  151. .
  152. . Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  153. ^ "Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History". Britannica.com. 31 January 1910. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
  154. .
  155. ^ .
  156. ^
    Manchester University
    Press. p. 151.
  157. ^ Krzysztof Olszewski (2007). The Rise and Decline of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth due to Grain Trade (PDF). p. 7. Retrieved 22 April 2009.[permanent dead link]
  158. .
  159. ^ Allen, Robert. "Economic Structure and agricultural productivity in Europe, 1300–1800" (PDF). Retrieved 5 May 2015.
  160. ^ kurkowski, Jan (2010). "Jarmarki w województwie lubelskim w XVI w." Pasaż Wiedzy. Muzeum Pałacu Króla Jana III w Wilanowie. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  161. ^ Billock, Jennifer (2019). "Follow the Ancient Amber Road". Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  162. ^ "Drogi handlowe w dawnej Polsce". PWN. Encyklopedia PWN. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  163. ^ Polskie Towarzystwo Historyczne (1989). Kwartalnik historyczny. Vol. 3–4. Polskie Towarzystwo Historyczne. p. 214. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  164. ^ ""Polonaise" carpet". museu.gulbenkian.pt. Archived from the original on February 28, 2003. Retrieved May 18, 2009.
  165. ^ a b Stachowicz 1894, p. 279
  166. ^ Tomaszewska, A. "Wolna elekcja i zasady jej funkcjonowania" (PDF). Tomaszewska. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  167. ^ Juliusz Bardach; Zdzisław Kaczmarczyk; Bogusław Leśnodorski (1957). Historia państwa i prawa Polski do roku 1795 (in Polish). Vol. 2. Polska: Państwowe Wydawn. Naukowe. pp. 306–308. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  168. ]
  169. ^ Stachowicz, Michał (1894). Wojsko polskie Kościuszki w roku 1794 (in Polish). Poznań: Księgarnia Katolicka. pp. 23–25. Retrieved 14 February 2021.
  170. ^ Stachowicz 1894, pp. 23–25
  171. ^ Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe), 1987, p. 229.
  172. ^ Brzezinski (1988), p. 6.
  173. ^ a b c d e f g Bardach et al. (1987), pp. 229–230.
  174. ^ a b Brzezinski (1987), p. 10.
  175. ^ Bardach et al. (1987), pp. 227–228.
  176. . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  177. ^ .
  178. .
  179. .
  180. ^ "Setting Sail". www.warsawvoice.pl. 29 May 2003. Archived from the original on 26 January 2008. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
  181. ^ Paul Peucker. "Jan Amos Comenius (1592–1670)" (PDF). www.moravian.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 2, 2009. Retrieved May 18, 2009.
  182. .
  183. ^ "Portraits collection". muzeum.leszno.pl. Retrieved 18 May 2009.
  184. .
  185. ^ .
  186. ^ Szablowski, Jerzy (1975). Arrasy flamandzkie w zamku królewskim na Wawelu (in Polish). Polska: Arkady. p. 15. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  187. ^ Szablowski, Jerzy (1975). Arrasy flamandzkie w zamku królewskim na Wawelu (in Polish). Polska: Arkady. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  188. . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  189. ^ Singleton, Esther (12 December 2019). "French and English furniture distinctive styles and periods described and illustrated". Good Press – via Google Books.
  190. ^ Dialog. Miesiȩcznik poświȩcony dramaturgii współczesnej, teatralnej, filmowej, radiowej, telewizyjnej. Vol. 11. Polska: RSW "Prasa". 1966. p. 6. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  191. .
  192. ^ Lubliner, Ludwig (1858). Obrona Żydów zamieszkałych w krajach polskich od niesłusznych zarzutów i fałszywych oskarzeń. Brussels: C. Vanderauwer. p. 7. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  193. . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  194. ^ Państwowy Instytut Badania Sztuki Ludowej (1974). "Volumes 28–29". Polska sztuka ludowa (Polish Folk Art). Państwowy Instytut Sztuki. p. 259.
  195. .
  196. ^ a b Michael J. Mikoś. "Baroque". www.staropolska.pl. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
  197. . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  198. ^ Kowalczyk, Jerzy (1973). Sebastiano Serlio a sztuka polska. Polska: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. p. 119. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  199. .
  200. . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  201. . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  202. . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  203. ^ "Palaces and Castles in a Lion Country". www.lvivtoday.com.ua. 2 June 2008. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2009.
  204. . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  205. . W każdym razie "królowa bez korony i pierwsza dama Rzeczypospolitej", jak współcześni określali Sieniawską, zasługuje na biografię naukową.
  206. ^ Andrzej Wasko, Sarmatism or the Enlightenment: <space>The Dilemma of Polish Culture, Sarmatian Review XVII:2, online
  207. ^ Dziejochciejstwo, dziejokrętactwo, Janusz Tazbir, Polityka 6 (2591) 10 February 2007 (in Polish)
  208. .
  209. .
  210. ^ a b Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010
  211. ^ Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010, p. 236
  212. ^ a b Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010, p. 237
  213. ^ R. B. Wernham, The new Cambridge modern history: The Counter-Reformation and price revolution, 1559–1610, 1968, Cambridge University Press, Google print p. 377
  214. ^ a b Matthew P. Romaniello, Charles Lipp. Contested Spaces of Nobility in Early Modern Europe. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 2011. p. 233.
  215. ^ Polish Sociological Review (in Polish). Polish Sociological Association. 2007. p. 96.
  216. ^ Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010, p. 201
  217. ^ Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010, pp. 25–83
  218. ^ a b Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010, pp. 29–38
  219. ^ Stone, Daniel, The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795, Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2001.
  220. .
  221. .
  222. ^ Piekarski, Adam (1979). Freedom of Conscience and Religion in Poland. Interpress Publishers. p. 31.
  223. ^ a b "Memory of the World Register Nomination Form". portal.unesco.org. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
  224. .
  225. ^ "Lemberg". Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
  226. .
  227. .
  228. ^ "Poland, history of", Encyclopædia Britannica from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. [2]. Retrieved 10 February 2006 Archived 1 November 2004 at the Wayback Machine and "Ukraine", Encyclopædia Britannica from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. [3]. Retrieved 14 February 2006. Archived 24 January 2005 at the Wayback Machine
  229. ^ "European Jewish Congress – Poland". Eurojewcong.org. Archived from the original on 11 December 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
  230. .
  231. ^ .
  232. ^ a b Aleksander Gieysztor, ed. (1988). Rzeczpospolita w dobie Jana III (Commonwealth during the reign of John III). Royal Castle in Warsaw. p. 45.
  233. ^
  234. ^
  235. ^
  236. ^ a b Daniel. Z Stone, A History of East Central Europe, p. 46.
  237. .
  238. ^ L'union personnelle polono-saxonne contribua davantage à faire connaître en Pologne le français que l'allemand. Cette fonction de la langue française, devenue l'instrument de communication entre les groupes dirigeants des deux pays. Polish Academy of Sciences Institute of History (1970). "Volume 22". Acta Poloniae historica (in French). National Ossoliński Institute. p. 79.
  239. .
  240. ^ України, ЦДЕА. "Державна архівна служба України". archives.gov.ua.
  241. ^ Although still sometimes in use by the end of the XVII century and lack of official decree like one for Grand Duchy chancellery, there was no separate Ruthenian Metrica since 1673.
  242. Žygimantas Augustas
    ' in 1552...//Courts juratory were written in Lithuanian language. In fact, such [courts juratory written in Lithuanian] survived from the 17th century...
  243. ^ ""Mes Wladislaus..." a letter from Wladyslaw Vasa issued in 1639 written in Lithuanian language". Retrieved 3 September 2006.
  244. ISBN 9955-445-26-2. In 1794 Government's declarations were carried out and in Lithuanian.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  245. ^ Daniel. Z Stone, A History of East Central Europe, p. 4.
  246. ^ .
  247. . Podobną opinię przekazał nieco późnej, w 1577 r. Marcin Kromer "Za naszej pamięci weszli [...] do głównych miast Polski kupcy i rzemieślnicy włoscy, a język ich jest także częściowo w użyciu, mianowicie wśród wytworniejszych Polaków, którzy chętnie podróżują do Włoch".
  248. .
  249. . In 1600 the son of the chancellor of Poland was learning four languages: Latin, Greek, Turkish, and Polish. By the time he had completed his studies, he was fluent not only in Turkish but also in Tatar and Arabic.
  250. .
  251. .
  252. Constitution of the Republic of Poland
    of 1997.
  253. ^ Grzegorz Górny (23 August 2008). "Zobaczyć Kresy" (in Polish). Rzeczpospolita. Archived from the original on 10 July 2015. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
  254. .
  255. .
  256. .
  257. .
  258. .
  259. .
  260. .
  261. ^ Ian Ridpath. "Taurus Poniatovii – Poniatowski's bull". www.ianridpath.com. Retrieved 18 May 2009.
  262. ^ "Old City of Zamość". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 23 September 2009. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
  263. ^ After a fire had destroyed a wooden synagogue in 1733 Stanislaw Lubomirski decided to found a new bricked synagogue building. Polin Travel. "Lancut". www.jewish-guide.pl. Retrieved 2 September 2010.
  264. ^ Guillaume de Lamberty (1735). "Volume 3". Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire du XVIIIe siècle, contenant les négociations, traitez, résolutions et autres documents authentiques concernant les affaires d'état: avec le supplément aux années MDCXCVI–MDCCIII (in French). p. 343. Généreux et Magnifiques Seigneurs les Sénateurs et autres Ordres de la Sérénissime République de Pologne et du grand Duché de Lithuanie
  265. ^ .
  266. .
  267. .
  268. . vilnius capital grand duchy.
  269. ^ Politics and reformations: communities, polities, nations, and empires. 2007 p. 206.
  270. ^ Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung. 2006, Vol. 55; p. 2.
  271. ISBN 978-90-04-16173-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  272. ISBN 978-90-272-3453-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )

Bibliography

External links

50°03′14″N 19°56′05″E / 50.05389°N 19.93472°E / 50.05389; 19.93472