In 1993, the newly formed government of Namibia received funding from the
In 1996, the Government of Namibia introduced legislation giving communities the power to create their own conservancies. The legislation allowed local communities to create conservancies that managed and benefited from wildlife on communal land while allowing the local community to work with private companies to create and manage their own tourism market.[4] As of 2006, there are 44 communal conservancies in operation,[5] in which the members are responsible for protecting their own resources sustainably, particularly the wildlife populations for game hunting and ecotourism revenues.[3]
USAID began its third phase of CBNRM program in 2005, which includes expanding community management to include
The conservancies stress the importance of local community control, but do not place any pressure on becoming a member.[3] Communities that wish to apply to become a conservancy must apply through the Minister of Environment and Tourism office.[6] Requirements for the conservancy application include a list of local area people who are community members, a declaration of their goals and objectives, and a map of their geographic boundaries. Their plans must also be discussed with communities that surround their boundaries. Any funds that the community receives through their conservancy must be distributed to the local community.[7]
The conservancies in Namibia consist of various types,[8] including the following:
Profits from the conservancies are pooled together and used for the benefit of the community. The money can be used for projects such as building schools, daycare facilities or clinics. For example, the Torra Conservancy contributed $2,000 for school renovations, including buying a new
Since the introduction of the conservation legislation in 1996, benefits to the local communities have greatly increased.[13] In 2004, the annual earnings for all 31 conservancies combined equaled $2.35 million, compared to $100,000 in 1995.[1] The first self-sufficient conservancy was the Torra Conservancy, and in 2003, the annual average monetary distribution to their members was about $75.[1] The progress of the CBNRM programs has been such that approximately 1 out of 12 Namibians is a member of a communal wildlife conservancy.[13]
Namibia has a high level of
There are 3 major
The aridity of Namibia makes the wetland ecosystems extremely crucial for many species, and can actually drive the distribution patterns of mammals. There’s a gradient of species richness in Namibia that extends from southwest to northeast, which is similar to the pattern of rainfall.[14] Because of the aridity, many animal species rely on protected migration corridors during droughty conditions.[13]
Currently, about 50% of all species in Namibia are of some
Many of the wildlife populations have also decreased due to human-wildlife conflict, and as a response, these conservancies have attempted to address these concerns. As increasing human populations and habitat conversions to agriculture and/or livestock grazing occur, cheetahs, lions, and other large predators prey on cattle and other livestock. The conservancies mitigate the conflict by compensating the farmers for their losses. Some conservancies pay in cash specifically set aside from the conservancy funds,[1] or, as in the Torra Conservancy, livestock are replaced by ones bred in a breeding station funded by the conservancy profits.[4] This can actually reduce the "revenge killing" of large mammal predators that has been a large cause of the population reductions.
Besides
Currently, approximately 14% of Namibia is designated as
As a result of these conservancies, there are many instances in which wildlife populations are on the rebound. Poaching has decreased dramatically, and is most likely due to the shift in the perceived value of wildlife.springbok, and 35,000 oryx.[13]
While there have been many benefits of these conservancies, questions still remain about their success. As of 2004, no quantitative studies had been done to determine if the conservancies have actually helped in protecting
There is also some concern that the protected area networks (PANs) established by the Namibian government are heavily skewed towards the
There are over 15 different Non-profit organizations that are dedicated to anti-poaching and conservation efforts.
A study of
The same study found that low capital investment needs compared to cattle ranching introduced significantly less risk to the conservancies.herds of wild animals remained for long periods of time. This profitability came from the improved value of meat but most significantly from the interest that tourism and hunting have in wildlife. Few people would spend large sums of money to travel in the bush to see domestic cattle.
A study done in neighboring South Africa found that younger community members thought most highly of their conservancies, primarily because of the increase in employment opportunities and the improved economic situation of the communities.[27] Others, particularly cattle ranchers, viewed the conservancies with dissatisfaction as they tended to reduce range grazing opportunities in favor of reserved – or in some cases restored – land for wildlife. King (2007) also found that the economic expectations of the particular conservancy were not met. However, King (2007) interpreted this as a result of unrealistic expectations and a concern for international ideals that did not consider the community out of which the conservancy was formed.[27]
The value of communal wildlife conservancies toward
The
A study found that CAMPFIRE was successful in its primary aims, notably
The importance of some measure of control over their lives and surroundings to individuals and communities is readily apparent. The control given to the community members of the conservancies was found to motivate them to administer and sustain the land area more effectively than the national government had been able to. A study done to understand the lack of success in several other types of wildlife and habitat sustainability programs, showed that the two biggest failings were: a poor or generic understanding of the affected communities, and a lack of community involvement within each specific program.[27] Trophy hunters and ecotourists can go elsewhere, but the local population is usually not able to move. Not understanding the need to include the local stakeholders and their access to benefits or concern over burdens prompted the locals to largely ignore various aspects of previous sustainability plans. Many of these failings can be attributed to pressure from foreign governments and non governmental organizations whose primary interests may have generally ignored local populations.
In addition to a better understanding of the stakeholders' needs, the decrease in cost of some