Communes of France
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Communes of France | |
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Category | Municipality |
Location | France |
Found in | Departments |
Number | 34,965 (List) (as of January 2021) |
Populations | 1 (Rochefourchat) – 2,175,601 (Paris) |
Areas | 0.04 km2 (Castelmoron-d'Albret) – 18,360 km2 (Maripasoula) |
Government |
This article is part of a series on the |
Administrative divisions of France |
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Administrative divisions |
Intercommunality |
Communes |
Overseas France |
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Geocodes of France |
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France portal |
The commune (French pronunciation:
Communes vary widely in size and area, from large sprawling cities with millions of inhabitants like Paris, to small hamlets with only a handful of inhabitants. Communes typically are based on pre-existing villages and facilitate local governance. All communes have names, but not all named geographic areas or groups of people residing together are communes ("lieu dit" or "bourg"), the difference residing in the lack of administrative powers. Except for the municipal arrondissements of its largest cities, the communes are the lowest level of administrative division in France and are governed by elected officials including a mayor (maire) and a municipal council (conseil municipal). They have extensive autonomous powers to implement national policy.
Terminology
A commune is the smallest and oldest administrative division in France.[1] "Commune" in English has a historical association with socialist and collectivist political movements and philosophies. This association arises in part from the rising of the Paris Commune (1871) which could have more felicitously been called, in English, "the rising of the City of Paris". There is nothing intrinsically different between "town" in English and commune in French.
The French word commune appeared in the 12th century, from Medieval Latin communia, for a large gathering of people sharing a common life; from Latin communis, 'things held in common'.
Number of communes
As of January 2021, there were 35,083 communes in
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(1) Within the current limits of metropolitan France, which existed between 1860 and 1871 and from 1919 to today. |
The whole territory of the French Republic is divided into communes; even uninhabited mountains or
- COM (collectivité d'outre-mer, i.e., overseas collectivity) of Saint-Martin (33,102 inhabitants). It was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe région. The commune structure was abolished when Saint-Martin became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007.
- COM of Wallis and Futuna (14,944 inhabitants), which still is divided according to the three traditional chiefdoms.
- COM of Saint Barthélemy (6,852 inhabitants). It was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe region. The commune structure was abolished when Saint-Barthélemy became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007.
Furthermore, two regions without permanent habitation have no communes:
- TOM (territoire d'outre-mer, i.e., overseas territory) of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands (no permanent population, about 200 resident scientists, soldiers and meteorologists)
- Clipperton Island in the Pacific Ocean (uninhabited)
Area of a typical commune
In metropolitan France, the average area of a commune in 2004 was 14.88 square kilometres (5.75 sq mi). The median area of metropolitan France's communes at the 1999 census was even smaller, at 10.73 square kilometres (4.14 sq mi). The median area gives a better sense of the size of a typical mainland France commune than the average area, since the average includes some very large communes.
In Italy, the median area of communes (comuni) is 22 km2 (8.5 sq mi); in Belgium it is 40 km2 (15 sq mi); in Spain it is 35 km2 (14 sq mi); and in Germany, the majority of Länder have communes (Gemeinden) with a median area above 15 km2 (5.8 sq mi). Switzerland and the Länder of Rhineland-Palatinate, Schleswig-Holstein, and Thuringia in Germany were the only places in Europe where the communes had a smaller median area than in France.
The communes of France's
Population of a typical commune
The median population of metropolitan France's communes at the 1999 census was 380 inhabitants. Again this is a very small number, and here France stands absolutely apart in Europe, with the lowest communes' median population of all the European countries (communes in Switzerland or Rhineland-Palatinate may cover a smaller area, as mentioned above, but they are more populated). This small median population of French communes can be compared with Italy, where the median population of communes in 2001 was 2,343 inhabitants, Belgium (11,265 inhabitants), or even Spain (564 inhabitants).
The median population given here should not hide the fact that there are pronounced differences in size between French communes. As mentioned in the introduction, a commune can be a city of 2 million inhabitants such as Paris, a town of 10,000 inhabitants, or just a hamlet of 10 inhabitants. What the median population tells us is that the vast majority of the French communes only have a few hundred inhabitants; but there are also a small number of communes within much higher populations.
In metropolitan France 57 percent of the 36,683 communes[4] have fewer than 500 inhabitants and, with 4,638,000 inhabitants, these smaller communes constitute just 7.7 percent of the total population. In other words, just 8 percent of the French population live in 57 percent of its communes, whilst 92 percent are concentrated in the remaining 43 percent.
Example: Alsace
Alsace, with an area of 8,280 km2 (3,200 sq mi), and now part of the Région Grand Est, used to be the smallest of the regions of metropolitan France, and still has no fewer than 904 communes. This high number is typical of metropolitan France but is atypical when compared with other European countries. It shows the distinctive nature of the French commune as a geo-political or administrative entity.
With its 904 communes, Alsace has three times as many municipalities as Sweden, which has a much larger territory covering 449,964 km2 (173,732 sq mi) and yet is divided into only 290 municipalities (kommuner). Alsace has more than double the total number of municipalities of the Netherlands which, in spite of having a population nine times larger and a land area four times larger than Alsace, is divided into just 390 municipalities (gemeenten).
Most of the communes in Alsace, along with those in other regions of France, have rejected the central government's calls for mergers and rationalization. By way of contrast, in the German states bordering Alsace, the geo-political and administrative areas have been subject to various re-organizations from the 1960s onward. In the state of Baden-Württemberg, the number of Gemeinden or communities was reduced from 3,378 in 1968[5] to 1,108 in September 2007.[6] In comparison, the number of communes in Alsace was only reduced from 946 in 1971[7][8] (just before the Marcellin law aimed at encouraging French communes to merge with each other was passed, see Current debate section below) to 904 in January 2007. Consequently, the Alsace region—despite having a land area only one-fifth the size and a total population only one-sixth of that of its neighbor Baden-Württemberg—has almost as many municipalities. The small Alsace region has more than double the number of municipalities compared to the large and populous state of North Rhine-Westphalia (396 Gemeinden in September 2007).
Status of the communes
Despite differences in population, each of the communes of the French Republic possess a
French law makes allowances for the vast differences in commune size in a number of areas of administrative law. The size of the municipal council, the method of electing the municipal council, the maximum allowable pay of the mayor and deputy mayors, and municipal campaign finance limits (among other features) all depend on the population echelon into which a particular commune falls.
Since the PLM Law of 1982, three French communes also have a special status in that they are further divided into
The rights and obligations of communes are governed by the Code général des collectivités territoriales (CGCT) which replaced the Code des communes (except for personnel matters) with the passage of the law of 21 February 1996 for legislation and decree number 2000-318 of 7 April 2000 for regulations.[9][10]
From 1794 to 1977 — except for a few months in 1848 and 1870-1871 — Paris had no mayor and was thus directly controlled by the departmental prefect. This meant that Paris had less autonomy than certain towns or villages. Even after Paris regained the right to elect its own mayor in 1977, the central government retained control of the Paris police. In all other French communes, the municipal police are under the mayor's supervision.
History of the French communes
French communes were created at the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789–1790.
Kingdom of France
Parishes
Before the revolution, France's lowest level of administrative division was the parish (paroisse), and there were up to 60,000 of them in the kingdom. A parish was essentially a church, the houses around it (known as the village), and the cultivated land around the village. France was the most populous country in Europe at this time, with a population of approximately 25 million inhabitants in the late 18th century (England in contrast had only 6 million inhabitants), which accounts for the large number of parishes. French kings often prided themselves on ruling over a "realm of 100,000 steeples".
Parishes lacked the municipal structures of post-Revolution communes. Usually, one contained only a building committee (conseil de fabrique), made up of villagers, which managed the buildings of the parish church, the churchyard, and the other numerous church estates and properties, and sometimes also provided help for the poor, or even administered parish hospitals or schools. Since the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts of 1539 by Francis I, the priest in charge of the parish was also required to record baptisms, marriages, and burials. Except for these tasks, villages were left to handle other issues as they pleased. Typically, villagers would gather to decide over a special issue regarding the community, such as agricultural land usage, but there existed no permanent municipal body. In many places, the local feudal lord (seigneur) still had a major influence in the village's affairs, collecting taxes from tenant-villagers and ordering them to work the corvée, controlling which fields were to be used and when, and how much of the harvest should be given to him.
Chartered cities
Additionally some cities had obtained charters during the Middle Ages, either from the king himself or from local counts or dukes (such as the city of Toulouse chartered by the counts of Toulouse). These cities were made up of several parishes (up to c. 50 parishes in the case of Paris), and they were usually enclosed by a defensive wall. They had been emancipated from the power of feudal lords in the 12th and 13th centuries, had municipal bodies which administered the city, and bore some resemblance with the communes that the French Revolution would establish except for two key points:
- these municipal bodies were not democratic; they were usually in the hands of some rich bourgeois families upon whom, over time, nobility had been conferred, so they can be better labeled as oligarchiesrather than municipal democracies.
- there was no uniform status for these chartered cities, each one having its own status and specific organization.
In the north, cities tended to be administered by échevins (from an old Germanic word meaning judge), while in the south, cities tended to be administered by consuls (in a clear reference to Roman antiquity), but Bordeaux was administered by jurats (etymologically meaning "sworn men") and Toulouse by capitouls ("men of the chapter"). Usually, there was no mayor in the modern sense; all the échevins or consuls were on equal footing, and rendered decisions collegially. However, for certain purposes there was one échevin or consul ranking above the others, a sort of mayor, although not with the same authority and executive powers as a modern mayor. This "mayor" was called provost of the merchants (prévôt des marchands) in Paris and Lyon; maire in Marseille, Bordeaux, Rouen, Orléans, Bayonne and many other cities and towns; mayeur in Lille; premier capitoul in Toulouse; viguier in Montpellier; premier consul in many towns of southern France; prêteur royal in Strasbourg; maître échevin in Metz; maire royal in Nancy; or prévôt in Valenciennes.
French Revolution
On 14 July 1789, at the end of the afternoon, following the storming of the Bastille, the provost of the merchants of Paris, Jacques de Flesselles was shot by the crowd on the steps of Paris City Hall.[11] Although in the Middle Ages the provosts of the merchants symbolized the independence of Paris and even had openly rebelled against King Charles V, their office had been suppressed by the king, then reinstated but with strict control from the king, and so they had ended up being viewed by the people as yet another representative of the king, no longer the embodiment of a free municipality.
Following that event, a
Thus, they set out to establish administrative divisions that would be uniform across the country: the whole of France would be divided into départements, themselves divided into arrondissements, themselves divided into cantons, themselves divided into communes, no exceptions. All of these communes would have equal status, they would all have a mayor at their head, and a municipal council elected by the inhabitants of the commune. This was a real revolution for the thousands of villages that never had experienced organized municipal life before. A communal house had to be built in each of these villages, which would house the meetings of the municipal council as well as the administration of the commune. Some in the National Assembly were opposed to such a fragmentation of France into thousands of communes, but eventually
On 20 September 1792, the recording of births, marriages, and deaths also was withdrawn as a responsibility of the priests of the parishes and handed to the mayors.
Trends after the French Revolution
Today, French communes are still very much the same in their general principles as those that were established at the beginning of the Revolution. The biggest changes occurred in 1831, when the French Parliament re-established the principle of the election of municipal councils, and in 1837 when French communes were given legal "personality", being now considered
During the revolution, approximately 41,000 communes were created,[14] on territory corresponding to the limits of modern-day France (the 41,000 figure includes the communes of the departments of Savoie, Haute-Savoie and Alpes-Maritimes which were annexed in 1795, but does not include the departments of modern-day Belgium and Germany west of the Rhine, which were part of France between 1795 and 1815). This was fewer than the 60,000 parishes that existed before the revolution (in cities and towns, parishes were merged into one single commune; in the countryside, some very small parishes were merged with bigger ones), but 41,000 was still a considerable number, without any comparison in the world at the time, except in the empire of China (but there, only county level and above had any permanent administration).
Since then, tremendous changes have affected France, as they have the rest of Europe: the
Paris in fact was one of the very few communes of France whose limits were extended to take into account the expansion of the urbanized area. The new, larger, commune of Paris was set up under the oversight of Emperor
Thus, in Europe, only Switzerland has as high a density of
Communes nouvelles
There have long been calls in France for a massive merger of communes, including by such distinguished voices as the president of the
Mergers, however, are not easy to achieve. One problem is that mergers reduce the number of available elected positions, and thus are not popular with local politicians. Moreover, citizens from one village may be unwilling to have their local services run by an executive located in another village, whom they may consider unaware of or inattentive to their local needs.
In December 2010 the law n° 2010-1563 regarding reform of territorial collectivities was adopted, which created the legal framework for the communes nouvelles (lit. "new communes").[15] A commune nouvelle can be created by merger of a number of communes at the request of the municipal councils of all the communes or at the initiative of the state representative in the department (the prefect). The municipal council of the new commune can decide to create communes déléguées (lit. "delegated communes") in the place of the former communes, which are represented by a delegated mayor and a delegated council. Between 2012 and 2021, about 820 communes nouvelles have been established, replacing about 2,550 old communes.
Intercommunality
This section needs additional citations for verification. (November 2018) |
The expression "intercommunality" (intercommunalité) denotes several forms of cooperation between communes. Such cooperation first made its appearance at the end of the 19th century in the form of a law on 22 March 1890,
In recent years it has become increasingly common for communes to band together in intercommunal consortia for the provision of such services as refuse collection and water supply. Suburban communes often team up with the city at the core of their urban area to form a community charged with managing public transport or even administering the collection of local taxes.
The Chevènement law tidied up all these practices, abolishing some structures and creating new ones. In addition, it offered central government finance aimed at encouraging further communes to join in intercommunal structures. Unlike the only partially successful statute enacted in 1966 and enabling urban communes to form urban communities, or the more marked failure of the
There are two types of these structures:
- Those without fiscal power, the loosest form of intercommunality. Mainly in this category are the traditional syndicates of communes. Communes gather and contribute financially to the syndicate, but the syndicate cannot levy its own taxes. Communes can leave the syndicate at any time. Syndicates can be set up for a particular purpose or to deal with several simultaneous matters. These structures have been left untouched by the Chevènement law, and they are on the decline.
- Structures with fiscal power. This is what the Chevènement law was concerned with, and it distinguished three structures with fiscal power:
- the community of communes (communauté de communes), aimed primarily at rural communes;
- the community of agglomeration (communauté d'agglomération), aimed at towns and middle-sized cities and their suburbs;
- the urban community (communauté urbaine), aimed at larger cities and their suburbs.
- the metropolis (métropole), established in 2014, aimed at the largest cities and their suburbs.
- These three structures are given varying levels of fiscal power, with the community of agglomeration and the urban community having most fiscal power, levying the local tax on corporations (taxe professionnelle) in their own name instead of those of the communes, and with the same level of taxation across the communes of the community. The communities must also manage some services previously performed by the communes, such as garbage collection or transport, but the law also makes it mandatory for the communities to manage other areas such as economic planning and development, housing projects, or environment protection. Communities of communes are required to manage the fewest areas, leaving the communes more autonomous, while urban communities are required to manage most matters, leaving the communes within them with less autonomy.
Allocation of government money
In exchange for the creation of a community, the government allocates money to them based on their population, thus providing an incentive for communes to team up and form communities. Communities of communes are given the least money per inhabitant, whereas urban communities are given the most money per inhabitant, thus pushing communes to form more integrated communities where they have fewer powers, which they might otherwise have been loath to do if it were not for government money.
The Chevènement law has been extremely successful in the sense that a majority of French communes now have joined the new intercommunal structures. On 1 January 2007, there were 2,573 such communities in metropolitan France (including five syndicats d'agglomération nouvelle, a category currently being phased out), made up of 33,327 communes (91.1 percent of all the communes of metropolitan France), and 52.86 million inhabitants, i.e., 86.7 percent of the population of metropolitan France.[17]
These impressive results however may hide a murkier reality. In rural areas, many communes have entered a community of communes only to benefit from government funds. Often the local syndicate has been turned officially into a community of communes, the new community of communes in fact managing only the services previously managed by the syndicate, contrary to the spirit of the law which has established the new intercommunal structures to carry out a much broader range of activities than that undertaken by the old syndicates. Some say that, should government money transfers be stopped, many of these communities of communes would revert to their former status of syndicate, or simply completely disappear in places where there were no syndicates prior to the law.[citation needed]
In urban areas, the new intercommunal structures are much more a reality, being created by local decision-makers out of genuine belief in the worth of working together. However, in many places local feuds have arisen, and it was not possible to set up an intercommunal structure for the whole of the urban area: some communes refusing to take part in it, or even creating their own structure. In some urban areas like Marseille there exist four distinct intercommunal structures! In many areas, rich communes have joined with other rich communes and have refused to let in poorer communes, for fear that their citizens would be overtaxed to the benefit of poorer suburbs.[citation needed]
Moreover, intercommunal structures in many urban areas are still new, and fragile: Tensions exist between communes; the city at the center of the urban area often is suspected of wishing to dominate the suburban communes; communes from opposing political sides also may be suspicious of each other.[citation needed]
Two famous examples of this are Toulouse and Paris. In Toulouse, on top of there being six intercommunal structures, the main community of Toulouse and its suburbs is only a community of agglomeration, although Toulouse is large enough to create an Urban Community according to the law. This is because the suburban communes refused an urban community for fear of losing too much power, and opted for a community of agglomeration, despite the fact that a community of agglomeration receives less government funds than an urban community. As for Paris, no intercommunal structure has emerged there, the suburbs of Paris fearing the concept of a "Greater Paris", and so disunity still is the rule in the metropolitan area, with the suburbs of Paris creating many different intercommunal structures all without the city.[citation needed]
One major often raised problem with intercommunality, is the fact that the intercommunal structures are not subject to directly election by the people, so it is the representatives of each individual commune that sit in the new structure. As a consequence, civil servants and bureaucrats are the ones setting up the agenda and implementing it, with the elected representatives of the communes only endorsing key decisions.[citation needed]
Classification
- Two digits (department) and three digits (commune) for the 96 departments of metropolitan France.
- Three digits (department or collectivity) and two digits (commune) for the Overseas collectivities and Overseas countries.
Administration
Each commune has a municipal council (conseil municipal) composed of municipal councilors (conseillers municipaux). The municipal council is the legislative and deliberative
Miscellaneous facts
Most and least populous communes
- Paris is the most populous commune of France with 2,187,526 residents as of 2017.[18]
- Six of the French villages destroyed in the First World War have never been rebuilt. All are found in the département of Meuse and were destroyed during the Battle of Verdun in 1916. After the war, it was decided that the land previously occupied by the destroyed villages would not be incorporated into other communes, as a testament to these villages which had "died for France", as they were declared, and to preserve their memory. The following communes are entirely unpopulated and are managed by a council of three members, appointed by the prefectof Meuse:
- Apart from the above cases, the communes with the fewest inhabitants in the French Republic are:[18]
- commune of Rochefourchat (Drôme), in southeastern France, one inhabitant as of 1999. (a 38-year-old divorced man)
- commune of Leménil-Mitry (Meurthe-et-Moselle), in eastern France, three inhabitants as of 2017.
- the communes of La Bâtie-des-Fonds (Drôme), Caunette-sur-Lauquet (Aude) and Majastres (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence), each with four inhabitants as of 2017.
Most and least subdivided communes
- Pas-de-Calais is the department in France with the most communes, with 890.
- Paris is the department in France with the fewest communes, with only single commune of an arrondissement and the department itself.
Largest and smallest commune territories
- The largest commune of the French Republic is Maripasoula (with 3,710 inhabitants) in the département of French Guiana: 18,360 square kilometres (7,090 sq mi).
- The smallest commune of the French Republic is Castelmoron-d'Albret (53 inhabitants) near Bordeaux: 3.54 hectares (8.75 acres).
- In metropolitan France the largest commune is the commune of Arles (50,513 inhabitants) near Marseille, the territory of which encompasses most of the Camargue (the delta of the Rhône): 8.7 times the area of the city of Paris (excluding the outlying parks of Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes) at 759 square kilometres (293 sq mi).
Communes farthest away from the capital city of France
- The commune of the French Republic farthest away from Paris is the commune of L'Île-des-Pins (1,840 inhabitants) in New Caledonia: 16,841 km (10,465 miles) from the center of Paris.
- In continental France (i.e., European France excluding Corsica), the communes farthest away from Paris are Coustouges (93 inhabitants) and Lamanère (52 inhabitants) at the Spanish border: both at 721 km (448 mi) from the center of Paris as the crow flies.
Shortest and longest commune names
- The commune of the French Republic with the shortest name is the commune of Y in Somme (91 inhabitants).
- The two communes in the French Republic with the longest names (38 letters):
- Saint-Remy-en-Bouzemont-Saint-Genest-et-Isson in Marne (517 inhabitants)
- Beaujeu-Saint-Vallier-Pierrejux-et-Quitteur in Haute-Saône (937 inhabitants)
Communes with non-French names
In areas where languages other than French are or were spoken, most place-names have been translated into a French spelling and pronunciation, such as
- Alsatian: the commune of Mittelhausbergen (1,680 inhabitants)
- Amerindian: the commune of Kourou(19,107 inhabitants)
- Arpitan: the commune of Chamonix(9,514 inhabitants)
- Austronesian: the commune of Kouaoua (1,586 inhabitants)
- Basque: the commune of Ainhoa (683 inhabitants)
- Breton: the commune of Brest (141,315 inhabitants)
- Catalan: the commune of Banyuls-dels-Aspres (1,007 inhabitants)
- Comorian: the commune of M’Tsangamouji(5,028 inhabitants)
- Corsican: the commune of Calvi (5,377 inhabitants)
- Dutch: the commune of Steenvoorde (4,024 inhabitants)
- Italian: the commune of Bocognano (372 inhabitants)
- Occitan: the commune of Alès (41,205 inhabitants)
- Polynesian: the commune of Hitiaa O Te Ra (8,683 inhabitants)
See also
References
Citations
- Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques. Archivedfrom the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
- ^ "Les collectivités locales en chiffres 2021" (PDF) (in French). Direction générale des collectivités locales. p. 18. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2022. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
- ^ "Le code officiel géographique (COG), avant, pendant et autour (Version 3, volume 1)" (PDF) (in French). INSEE. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
- ^ "Circonscriptions administratives au 1er janvier 2015 : comparaisons régionales" [Administrative constituencies of 1 January 2015: regional comparisons] (in French). INSEE. Archived from the original on 30 April 2014. Retrieved 5 July 2015.
- ^ Parliament (Landtag) of Baden-Württemberg. "25 Jahre Gemeindereform Baden-Württemberg; hier: Neuordnung der Gemeinden" (PDF) (in German). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2007. Retrieved 25 November 2007.
- ^ gemeindeverzeichnis.de. "Gemeinden in Deutschland" (in German). Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
- ^ SPLAF. "Historique du Bas-Rhin" (in French). Archived from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 25 November 2007.
- ^ SPLAF. "Historique du Haut-Rhin" (in French). Archived from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 25 November 2007.
- ^ Legislation Archived 3 January 2005 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Decree Archived 12 January 2005 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Mark, Harrison W. "Storming of the Bastille". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 4 December 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
- ^ "The Territorial Archives will recover eight parish registers from the eighteenth century". www.soualigapost.com. 17 November 2016. Archived from the original on 4 December 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-19-921631-4.
On 20 September 1792, following the massacre of some 250 priests, the Legislative Assembly secularized the registration of births, marriages, and deaths, which became the responsibility of mayors.
- ^ "Statistique des communes (fin de l'Ancien Régime et XIXe siècle)" (in French). Archived from the original on 1 September 2004.
- ^ Loi n° 2010-1563 du 16 décembre 2010 de réforme des collectivités territoriales Archived 8 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Légifrance
- ^ Cour des Comptes 2005, p. 8.
- ^ Direction générale des collectivités locales (DGCL), Ministry of the Interior. "Répartition des EPCI à fiscalité propre par département au 01/01/2007" (PDF) (in French). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 July 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2007.
- ^ a b Téléchargement du fichier d'ensemble des populations légales en 2017 Archived 5 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine, INSEE
Sources
- La Documentation française Le développement de l'intercommunalité: la révolution discrète Archived 12 October 2005 at the Wayback Machine(in French)
- Les villes et communes de France Archived 10 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine lescommunes.com: contacts, offices du tourisme et maire, Hall and Tourist Office, statistiques, photographies. (in French)
- Maryvonne Bonnard, Les collectivités territoriales en France, 2005, La Documentation française, ISBN 2-11-005874-9(in French)
- Cour des comptes (2005). "L'intercommunalité en France" (PDF). Journaux Officiels. Paris: 370. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 January 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2022.
External links
- Media related to Communes in France at Wikimedia Commons
- Complete lists of cities and municipalities in France