Communism and LGBT rights
Part of a series on |
Communism |
---|
Communism portal Socialism portal |
Part of a series on |
LGBT rights |
---|
Lesbian ∙ Gay ∙ Bisexual ∙ Transgender |
LGBT portal |
History
Marxism
Early history
Communist leaders and intellectuals took many different positions on LGBT-rights issues. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels said very little on the subject in their published works and what they did say was contemptuous.[1][failed verification] Marx in particular commented rarely on sexuality in general.
The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality volume two is unequivocal on Marx and Engels view of homosexuality, stating: "There can be little doubt that, as far as they thought of the matter at all, Marx and Engels were personally homophobic, as shown by an acerbic 1869 exchange of letter on Jean Baptista von Schweitzer, a German socialist rival. Schweitzer had been arrested in a park on a morals charge and not only did Marx and Engels refuse to join a committee defending him, they resorted to the cheapest form of bathroom humor in their private comments about the affair."[2]
One of the first important politicians to speak out in favour of gay rights in public debates was the German Marxist and co-founder of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, August Bebel. Although Bebel personally considered same sex relationships to be "against nature", he was among the signatories of Magnus Hirschfeld's petition from the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee to overturn Paragraph 175 from the German penal code.[3] The bill brought before the Reichstag in 1898 was supported only by a minority from the Social Democratic Party of Germany led by Bebel. Among other signatories was the Marxist theoretician Karl Kautsky.[4][5]
In 1895, Marxist theorist Eduard Bernstein of the Social Democratic Party of Germany wrote a defense of Oscar Wilde (who had been on trial for homosexual behavior) in Die Neue Zeit, a materialist critique of social attitudes concerning the subject of sexuality. Among other arguments he made, he stated that the characterization of homosexuality as "unnatural" was inappropriate, preferring "not the norm" instead.[6] During the Weimar Republic, the Communist Party of Germany joined with the Social Democrats in support of efforts to legalize private homosexual relations between consenting adults.[7][8][6]
Part of a series on |
Marxism–Leninism |
---|
The situation for LGBT rights in the early Russian communist government was somewhat mixed. The
LGBT people and communist party membership
Gay men were sometimes denied membership or expelled from communist parties[15] across the globe during the 20th century, as most communist parties followed the social precedents set by the USSR. However, this was not always the case in the West.
Notable LGBT+ members of communist parties include:
- Karl-Günther Heimsoth (German politician) – member of both the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and Nazi Party.[16][17] Continued feeding information to KPD's secret service after the Nazis seized power.[18] Purged during the Night of the Long Knives.[19]
- Harry Whyte (British Marxist and open critic of the criminalization of homosexuality in the Soviet Union in 1934,[20] infamously dismissed as "an idiot and a degenerate" by Joseph Stalin in response to his letter arguing for the repeal of the law in question[21][22]) – member of the Communist Party of Great Britain.[22]
- Frida Kahlo (Mexican painter and political and social activist) – member of the Mexican Communist Party.
- gay rights activist, labor advocate,[23] Native American civil rights campaigner,[24] Mattachine Society founder,[25] co-founder of LA Gay Liberation Front[26] and supporter of the North American Man/Boy Love Association a pederasty advocacy group[27]) – member of the Communist Party USA.[28]
- Leslie Feinberg (Transgender and lesbian rights activist, self described "anti-racist white, working-class, secular Jewish, transgender, lesbian, female, revolutionary communist."[29]) – Member of Workers World Party
- LGBT rights advocate) – member of the Communist Party of Great Britain.[31]
- Georgy Chicherin - First People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR and member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Association of communism with homosexuality by anti-communists
The phrase "Sexual bolschevism" originated in Weimar Germany in the 1920s by Pastor Ludwig Hoppe of Berlin as a more general term of approbation at licentiousness.[32] When Nazi Germany came into being after the failures of the Weimar government, the Nazis used the term "sexual Bolshevism" to refer to perceived sexual degeneracy, in particular homosexuality.[33]
Association of fascism with homosexuality by communists
In the early 1920s, Western communist party leaders propagated the view that the increase in homosexuality and the open discussion of homosexuality were caused by capitalism "in its death throes". In their view, homosexuality would vanish.[34]
After Hitler's seizure of power (the
Events leading to the association of communism with homosexuality
The advance of doctors,
There are specific events which glbtq.com ("an encyclopedia of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and queer culture") claims to have contributed to the linkage of communism with homosexuality in the United States as well:
For example, in 1948, Whittaker Chambers, an editor and writer at Time magazine and a former Communist Party member and courier in a Soviet spy ring infiltrating the American government, accused Alger Hiss, head of the Carnegie Endowment, of perjury and, implicitly, of Soviet espionage. The vast media coverage of the scandal hinted that Chambers had a crush on Hiss, establishing a link between Communism and homosexuality. Chambers was only too eager to strengthen this link, declaring to the FBI that his homosexual activities had stopped once he had left the Communist Party. In addition, the 1951 flight to the Soviet Union of gay British spies Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean also helped fuel the association of homosexuality and treason in the public imagination.[35]
Cold War
During the height of the
McCarthy often used accusations of homosexuality as a
Senator
Connections between gay rights groups and radical leftists were not merely a figment of the imaginations of
Famous ex-communist former Soviet agent Whittaker Chambers notably spent his time in the left-wing underground pursuing both homosexual and heterosexual affairs, but he kept his liaisons quiet since his communist associates despised homosexuality.[42][43] Chambers later monogamously married the pacifist painter Esther Shemitz, working as a journalist and editor.
Modern day
Since the mid-1970s, most communist parties in the
The Communist Party of Greece voted against the [Civil Partnerships Bill proposed by
LGBT rights by communist parties
LGBT rights by Marxist parties
France
Initially, the French Communist Party vilified homosexuality as "the rubbish of capitalism" in the 1970s, but it has since changed its stance to be in favor of LGBT rights.[50] By the 1980s, it supported lowering the age of consent for same-sex relationships, and opposed attempts to re-penalize homosexuality. In 1998, the PCF voted in favour of the civil solidarity pact (PACS), civil unions, including for homosexual couples. The PCF supports both same-sex marriage and same-sex adoption. On 12 February 2013, PCF deputies voted in favour of same-sex marriage and adoption rights in the National Assembly,[51] though PCF deputy Patrice Carvalho voted against.[52]
Greece
In December 2015, KKE voted against the Civil Partnerships Bill proposed by Syriza that would extend cohabitation agreements to same-sex couples, responding, among other things:
The family is a social relationship, it is an institution for the protection of children, as it was formed in the context of today's society, capitalism. We also believe that civil marriage should be the only, obligatory form of marriage. And whoever wants, let him have the right to the corresponding religious ceremony. But you do not touch upon this urban modernization that has taken place in other countries for years.
If the government wanted to introduce a less "bureaucratic" civil marriage, it could propose the necessary amendments to the Civil Code. There is no need for two legal regulations (civil marriage and cohabitation agreement) on the rights and obligations between spouses, the core of which is the potential reproduction, upbringing and upbringing of children.
Today, this is confirmed by the fact that the Cohabitation Agreement is extended in terms of obligations and rights of both parties, which essentially resembles marriage and especially by the fact that it extends to same-sex couples. Greece's condemnation by the European Court of Justice, cited by the government and the Report, was not a breach of any positive obligation imposed by the European Convention on Human Rights. But it was a negative discrimination against homosexual scales, but in the context of the institutionalization of the Cohabitation Pact. If there was no Cohabitation Pact for heterosexual couples, there would be no question of condemning Greece.
The aim of the bill is essentially the institutional recognition of same-sex couples, including – in a process – the acquisition of children by them. And there, is our disagreement.
Rights and obligations arise within marriage, which is the legal expression of the social relations of the family. It includes social protection of children, who are biologically the result of sexual relations between a man and a woman.
With the formation of a socialist-communist society, a new type of partnership will undoubtedly be formed—a relatively stable heterosexual relationship and reproduction.[53]
Many democratic socialist parties, including Syriza, denounced the KKE's stance as bigotry.[53]
However, the KKE also supports strengthening legislation to punish homophobic behavior, and has spoken against such discrimination, stating that "Unacceptable and condemnable discrimination and violence against our fellow human beings, based on their sexual orientation and other personal characteristics, are not addressed by cheap declarations of equality and words of sympathy, but by strengthening legislation against perpetrators of sexism, racism and homophobia, with the full social support of those who suffer from such behaviors. A real shield against such discrimination is collectivism, the struggle for modern social rights for all people."[54]
In 2024, the party voted against same-sex marriage in Greece, claiming that "same-sex marriage means abolishing paternity-maternity".[55]India
In India, the
Ireland
In
Norway
The Red Party supports the continuation of same-sex marriage in Norway as well as same-sex adoption. It also supports laws against discrimination towards LGBT people, the prohibition of conversion therapy, the strengthening of treatment for transgender people, and the addition of a third gender category in official documents. Furthermore, it supports counseling services for questions about sexual orientation or gender identity, the production of literature and films that represent queer people, and insight about LGBT people in education. It also supports the acceptance of queer refugees from countries where LGBT activity remains punishable.[66]
Russia
The Communist Party of the Russian Federation remains socially conservative on LGBT rights, voting in favor of the anti-gay propaganda law[49] and introduced legislation in 2016 to prohibit coming out as LGBT.[67][68]
The Philippines
The New People's Army, a communist insurgency within the Philippines, has also made several statements supporting equal rights of same-sex couples and gay individuals, performing the first same-sex marriage in the country and officially endorsing such legislation if they were to come to power. They also went further to express their support for same-sex relationships, and gays and lesbians were allowed to serve in their forces before those of the Philippines.[69][70]
Turkey
The
United Kingdom
The
United States
Part of a series on |
Communist parties |
---|
The
Meanwhile, the
Elsewhere
Other communist parties present in
LGBT rights by communist states
LGBT rights by current communist states
As of 2023[update], Cuba is the only country ruled by a Marxist–Leninist government that legalized same-sex marriage, civil unions and same-sex adoption.
Cuba
Before the Cuban Revolution, Cuba had laws that criminalized homosexual men.[93][94][95] Even so, male homosexuality was an important part of the prostitution industry for tourists and the US military, but associated with gambling and criminal activity.[96][95][97]
After the Revolution, the position regarding homosexuality continued to be primarily negative, and some LGBT people chose to emigrate,[95][96] since homosexuality was associated with US imperialism and perceived as "bourgeoisie".[98][99][100] However, the law that criminalized homosexuality was repealed in 1979.[101] Since the late 1990s, public antipathy towards LGBT people eased, having implemented several educational campaigns on LGBT issues, including the National Center for Sex Education (CENESEX), organization of pride parades every May to coincide with the International Day Against Homophobia, Biphobia and Transphobia[102] and marking the LGBT History Month.[103]
The Communist Party of Cuba included the defense of LGBT rights in its regulations in 2013[104][105] and legalized same-sex marriage, civil unions, same-sex adoption and altruistic surrogacy, among other things, through amendments to the Cuban Constitution following the 2022 Cuban Family Code referendum.[106]
Laos
People's Republic of China
Vietnam
LGBT rights in former communist states
Afghanistan
Albania
The People's Socialist Republic of Albania penalized same-sex sexual intercourse with long prison terms, bullying and ostracism. Article 137 of the Crimes against Societal Moral of the Penal Code stated that: "Pederasty is punishable for up to ten years of freedom privation". The word "pederasty" was used as a code word for sex between two consenting adults or sex between an adult and a child of any gender.[107]
Angola
Benin
Same-sex sexual intercourse was always legal in the People's Republic of Benin. The People's Republic of Benin adopted a 1947 amendment to the Penal Code of 1877 under the Republic of Dahomey that fixed a general age limit of 13 for sex with a child of either gender, but penalized any act that is indecent or against nature if committed with a person of the same sex under 21: "Without prejudice to more severe penalties prescribed by the paragraphs that precede or by Articles 332 and 333 of this Code, shall be punished with imprisonment from six months to three years and a fine of 200 to 50,000 francs anyone who commits an indecent act or [an act] against nature with a minor ... of the same sex under 21 years old."[108][109]
Bulgaria
The
Byelorussia (Byelorussian SSR)
Congo
Same-sex sexual intercourse was always legal in the People's Republic of the Congo.
Czechoslovakia
In 1962, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic decriminalized same-sex sexual intercourse after scientific research from Kurt Freund led to the conclusion that homosexual orientation cannot be changed.[111][112]
East Germany
In the
In 1950, one year after being reconstituted as the
In 1954, the same court decided that Paragraph 175a in contrast to Paragraph 175 did not presuppose acts tantamount to sexual intercourse. Lewdness (Unzucht) was defined as any act that is performed to arouse sexual excitement and "violates the moral sentiment of our workers". A revision of the criminal code in 1957 made it possible to put aside prosecution of an illegal action that represented no danger to
In 1968, homosexuality was officially decriminalised in East Germany.
Gay social clubs and groups were allowed to organize themselves freely, so long as they made tenuous links with Protestant Churches. This was because the official position of the ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany was to outlaw discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, but to otherwise ignore that LGBT relationships existed. On 1 July 1968, the GDR adopted its own code of criminal law. In it § 151 StGB-DDR provided for a sentence up to three years' imprisonment or probation for an adult (18 and over) who engaged in sexual acts with a youth (under 18) of the same sex. This law applied not only to men who have sex with boys but equally to women who have sex with girls. According to historian Heidi Minning, attempts by lesbians and gay men in East Germany to establish a visible community were "thwarted at every turn by the G.D.R. government and SED party." She writes:
Police force was used on numerous occasions to break up or prevent public gay and lesbian events. Centralized censorship prevented the presentation of homosexuality in print and electronic media, as well as the import of such materials.[2]
In the late 1980s, the East German government opened a state-owned gay disco in Berlin. In 1987, the age of consent was equalized for same-sex intercourse in East Germany. On 11 August 1987 the Supreme Court of East Germany struck down a conviction under Paragraph 151 on the basis that "homosexuality, just like heterosexuality, represents a variant of sexual behavior. Homosexual people do therefore not stand outside socialist society, and the civil rights are warranted to them exactly as to all other citizens." One year later, the Volkskammer (the parliament of the GDR), in its fifth revision of the criminal code, brought the written law in line with what the court had ruled, striking Paragraph 151 without replacement. The act passed into law 30 May 1989. This removed all specific reference to homosexuality from East German criminal law. In 1989, the German film titled Coming Out directed by Heiner Carow was exhibited on the night that the Berlin wall came down, and tells a story of an East German man coming to accept his own homosexuality, with much of it shot in the local gay bars. This was the only East German LGBT rights film.
Ethiopia
The
Grenada
Hungary
The Hungarian People's Republic adopted the penal code of the Kingdom of Hungary which punished male same-sex sexual intercourse with prison up to one year. In 1961, male same-sex sexual intercourse above the age of 20 was decriminalized. In 1978, a new penal code lowered the age of consent to the age of 18 years old.
North Korea
Mongolia
In 1961, same-sex sexual intercourse was criminalized in the Mongolian People's Republic.
Mozambique
Poland
Same-sex sexual intercourse was always legal during the existence of the
The 2020 novel Swimming in the Dark by Tomasz Jedrowski presents a fictionalized depiction of LGBTQ life in the Polish People's Republic.[116]
Romania
The
- Sexual relations between persons of the same sex shall be punished with imprisonment from 1 to 5 years.
- Act stipulated in paragraph 1, committed against a minor, against a person unable to defend himself or to express his will, or by coercion, shall be punished with imprisonment from 2 to 7 years.
- If the act stipulated in paragraph 2 and 3 results in serious injury of physical integrity or health, the penalty is imprisonment from 3 to 10 years, and if results in the death or suicide of the victim, the penalty is imprisonment from 7 to 15 years.
- Inciting or encouraging a person to practice the act stipulated in paragraph 1 shall be punished with imprisonment from 1 to 5 years.
Article 200 was useful to the Ceaușescu regime in that, since 1970, it could strengthen social control.[120] These restrictions under the Penal Code were strictly unique to Romania among European countries.[121] The restrictions only included relationships and those who considered themselves homosexual were not punished but were instead considered as mentally ill.[122]
Somalia
Under Article 409 of the Somali Penal Code introduced in 1973, sexual intercourse with a person of the same sex is punishable by imprisonment from three months to three years in the Somali Democratic Republic. An "act of lust" other than sexual intercourse is punishable by a prison term of two months to two years. Under Article 410 of the Somali Penal Code, an additional security measure may accompany sentences for homosexual acts, usually coming in the form of police surveillance to prevent "re-offending".[123] Threats have been made that indicate that Somalia tolerates executions of homosexuals.[124]
South Yemen
Soviet Union
In November 1917, after the
In 1926, Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic criminalized male same-sex intercourse. In 1927, Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic criminalized male same-sex intercourse. Male same-sex intercourse was also illegal in Bukharan People's Soviet Republic, Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, Nakhichevan ASSR, and Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia.[128]
The Soviet Union sent delegates to the German
Soviet social policy in the 1920s regarding homosexuality and homosexual rights was mixed. On the one hand homosexuality was legal in the Russian and Ukrainian Soviet Republics and certain political and civil rights in the Soviet Union were extended to homosexuals. On the other hand, there was increasing pressure from both within and outside the Soviet government to recriminalise homosexuality and to reinstate bans on homosexual intercourse. In the late 1920s Soviet medical research increasingly came to classify homosexuality as a mental disease or as a remnant of bourgeois society.
Relative Soviet tolerance for homosexuality and homosexual rights ended in the late 1920s – as Soviet society came increasingly under Stalinist control. In the 1930s, along with increased repression of political dissidents and non-Russian nationalities under Stalin, LGBT themes faced official government censorship, and a uniformly harsher policy across the entire Soviet Union. Homosexuality was officially labelled a disease.[129] The official stance could be summarized in the article of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia of 1930 written by medical expert Sereisky:
Soviet legislation does not recognize so-called crimes against morality. Our laws proceed from the principle of protection of society and therefore countenance punishment only in those instances when juveniles and minors are the objects of homosexual interest ... while recognizing the incorrectness of homosexual development ... our society combines prophylactic and other therapeutic measures with all the necessary conditions for making the conflicts that afflict homosexuals as painless as possible and for resolving their typical estrangement from society within the collective
- —Sereisky, Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1930, p. 593
In 1934, the Soviet government recriminalised homosexuality in the Soviet Union. Mass arrests occurred in several cities in Russia, including Moscow, and many artists were arrested. On 7 March 1934, Article 121 was added to the criminal code, throughout the entire Soviet Union, that expressly prohibited only male same-sex sexual intercourse with up to five years of hard labor in prison. There were no criminal statutes regarding same-sex female sexual intercourse.[6] During the Soviet period, Western observers believed that between 800 and 1,000 men were imprisoned each year under Article 121.[130]
Some historians have noted that it was during this time that Soviet propaganda began to depict homosexuality as a sign of fascism, and that Article 121 may have a simple political tool to use against dissidents, irrespective of their true
The Soviet government itself said very little publicly about the change in the law, and few people seemed to be aware that it existed. In 1934, the British Communist Harry Whyte wrote a long letter to Stalin condemning the law, and its prejudicial motivations. He laid out a Marxist position against the oppression of homosexuals, as a social minority, and compared homophobia to racism, xenophobia and sexism.[133] While the letter was not formally replied to, Soviet cultural writer Maxim Gorky authored an article, published in both Pravda and Izvestia titled "Proletarian Humanism", that seemed to reject Whyte's arguments point by point. He rejected the notion that homosexuals were a social minority, and argued that the Soviet Union, governed by "manly proletariat", is obliged to persecute homosexuals to protect the youth from their corrupting effect. It is often said that he equated homosexuality with fascism, stating that "exterminate all homosexuals and fascism will vanish".[134][135] He was actually quoting a popular saying, Gorky in fact said: "There is already a sarcastic saying: Destroy homosexuality and fascism will disappear."[136][137] In 1936, Justice Commissar Nikolai Krylenko publicly stated that the anti-gay criminal law was aimed at the decadent and effete old ruling classes.[132]
During
In 1958, the Interior Ministry sent a secret memo to law enforcement ordering them to step up enforcement of the anti-gay criminal law. Yet, during the late 1950s – early 1960s, Aline Mosby, a foreign reporter in Russia at the time, attributed to the more liberal attitude of the Khrushchev government the fact that she saw some gay couples in public and that it was not uncommon to see men waiting outside of certain theaters looking for dates with male performers.[139]
A 1964 Soviet sex manual instructed: "With all the tricks at their disposal, homosexuals seek out and win the confidence of youngsters. Then they proceed to act. Do not under any circumstances allow them to touch you. Such people should be immediately reported to the administrative organs so that they can be removed from society."[140]
Imprisonment for male same-sex sexual intercourse and government censorship of homosexuality and LGBT rights did not begin to slowly relax until the early 1970s.
Russian gay author Yevgeny Kharitonov illegally circulated some gay fiction before he died of heart failure in 1981. Author Gennady Trifonov served four years of hard labor for circulating his gay poems and, upon his release, was allowed to write and publish only if he avoided depicting or making reference to homosexuality.[141] In 1984, a group of Russian gay men met and attempted to organize an official gay rights organization, only to be quickly shut down by the KGB. It was not until later in the Glasnost period that public discussion was permitted about re-legalizing private, consensual adult same-sex sexual intercourse.
A poll conducted in 1989 reported that homosexuals were the most hated group in Russian society and that 30 percent of those polled felt that homosexuals should be liquidated.
Ukraine (Ukrainian SSR)
Yugoslavia
During
In the 1970s, following the sexual revolution in much of Western Europe, the legal and social sphere of Yugoslavia started to liberalize towards LGBT rights. In 1973, the Croatian Medical Chamber removed homosexuality from its list of mental disorders. In 1974, Yugoslavia adopted a new federal constitution which resulted in the abolition of the federal penal code, allowing each socialist republic to create their own. SR Slovenia was the first republic to hold discussions in favor of decriminalizing homosexuality. The League of Communists of Yugoslavia held debates on the topic at least three times until 1976, when it requested decriminalization in all republics. In 1977, the Socialist Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, Socialist Republic of Croatia, Socialist Republic of Montenegro and Socialist Republic of Slovenia enacted their own individual penal codes and decriminalized male same-sex anal intercourse. Male same-sex anal intercourse remained illegal in the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Socialist Republic of Macedonia and the Socialist Republic of Serbia, excluding the Socialist Autonomous Province of Vojvodina (so including Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo).[149]
In 1985, Toni Marošević became the first openly gay media person, and briefly hosted a radio show on
Notable LGBT communists
LGBT Marxists
Name | Lifetime | Nationality | Political affiliation(s) | Career | Sexual orientation | Gender identity |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mark Ashton | 1960–1987 | British | Communist Party of Great Britain | British activist | Gay | Male |
Georgy Chicherin | 1872–1936 | Soviet (formally Russian) | Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)
|
Soviet politician | Gay | Male |
Leslie Feinberg | 1949–2014 | American | Workers World Party | American activist | Lesbian | Female (transgender) |
Harry Hay | 1912–2002 | American | Communist Party, USA
|
American activist | Gay | Male |
Júlio Fogaça | 1907–1980 | Portuguese | Portuguese Communist Party | Portuguese activist | Gay | Male |
Torstein Dahle | b. 1947 | Norwegian | Rødt
|
Norwegian political and Economist | Gay | Male |
Vladimir Luxuria | b. 1965 | Italian | Communist Refoundation Party | Italian politician | ? | Female (transgender) |
Sunil Pant | b. 1972 | Nepalese | Communist Party of Nepal (United) | Nepalese politician | Gay | Male |
Angela Davis | b. 1944 | American | Communist Party USA | American activist | Lesbian | Female |
LGBT former Marxists
Name | Lifetime | Nationality | Political affiliation(s) | Career | Sexual orientation | Gender identity |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rosario Crocetta | b. 1951 | Italian | Communist Refoundation Party Italian Communist Party (until 1991) |
Italian politician | Gay | Male |
Tom Driberg | 1905–1976 | British | Communist Party of Great Britain | British politician | Gay | Male |
Franco Grillini | b. 1955 | Italian | Italian Communist Party | Italian politician | Gay | Male |
Bayard Rustin | 1912–1987 | American | Social Democrats, USA | American activist | Gay | Male |
See also
- Gay Left
- History of communism
- LGBT rights
- New Left
- Pink capitalism
- Queer anarchism
- Socialism and LGBT rights
References
Notes
- ^ Huneke, Samuel (22 March 2022). "Communist states have sometimes been havens for LGBTQ rights". The Washington Post. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
- ^ Dynes, Wayne (22 February 2016). "Encyclopedia of Homosexuality Volume II". Google Books. Archived from the original on 26 February 2024.
- ISBN 978-1-4399-1432-8.
- JSTOR 3786307.
- ^ "Famous LGBTI Lawyers". www.unil.ch. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
- ^ ISBN 0-87810-041-5.
- .
- .
- ISBN 978-0-226-32233-9 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-0-19-256191-6 – via Google Books.
- S2CID 72670505.
- ISBN 978-0-226-32234-6.
- ^ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Russia: Update to RUS13194 of 16 February 1993 on the treatment of homosexuals". Refworld. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
- ^ "Anne Buetikofer — Homosexuality in the Soviet Union and in today's Russia". Savanne.ch. 11 April 1999. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
- ^ "Doug Ireland: Turns out Norman Thomas's Socialist Party Came Close to Breaking the Gay Taboo in 1952". Archived from the original on 1 July 2009. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ISBN 3-506-77482-4.. In Hergemöller, Mann, p. 332, the entry date of 1 May 1933 is most likely incorrect.
- ISBN 3-320-01817-5.
- ISBN 3-320-01817-5.
- ^ In connection with a note on an index of the NSDAP: Hergemöller, Mann, p. 332.
- Cambridge Core.
- ^ Healey, Dan (29 March 2012). "A Russian History of Homophobia". The Moscow Times. Archived from the original on 12 October 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2020.
- ^ a b Whyte, Harry (May 1934). ""Can a Homosexual be a Member of the Communist Party?"". HOMINTERN. Translated by Thomas Campbell. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2020.
- ^ Timmons 1990, pp. 64–65.
- ^ Timmons 1990, pp. 193–197.
- ^ Timmons 1990, pp. 143–145.
- ^ Timmons 1990, p. 230.
- ^ Bronski, Michael (7 July 2002). "The real Harry Hay". The Phoenix. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
He was, at times, a serious political embarrassment, as when he consistently advocated the inclusion of the North American Man/Boy Love Association (NAMBLA) in gay-pride parades.
- ^ Markowitz, Norman (6 August 2013). "The Communist movement and gay rights: The hidden history". Political Affairs. Archived from the original on 16 August 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
- ^ Pratt, Minnie Bruce (18 November 2014). "Leslie Feinberg - A communist who revolutionized transgender rights". Workers World. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
- ^ a b Kelliher 2014.
- ^ Skeates 2007.
- ^ ISBN 9780521423977 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 9781560247241 – via Google Books.
- ^ a b "Marxism". Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. Vol. 2.
- ^ Luca Prono (2004). "McCarthyism". glbtq.com. Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ISBN 9780791433676 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 9780748619238 – via Google Books.
- JSTOR 2568762.
- ISBN 978-0-19-992316-8 – via Google Books.
- Simon and Schuster. pp. 313–316.
- ]
- S2CID 159995629.
- ISBN 978-0-674-03258-3.
- ^ "Greece passes bill allowing civil partnerships for same-sex couples". The Guardian. Reuters. 23 December 2015.
- ^ "Κουτσούμπας: Όχι στο σύμφωνο συμβίωσης και στο δικαίωμα υιοθεσίας για ομοφυλόφιλους" [Koutsoubas: Not in the cohabitation agreement and in the right to adoption for homosexuals] (in Greek). mao.gr. 28 August 2014.
- ^ Patsiouris, Nikos (4 September 2014). "After all, homophobia is a Greek word". GBTimes.com. Archived from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
- ^ "Greek Communist Party Pushes Anti-Gay Bigotry". Workers Vanguard. International Communist League (Fourth International). 6 May 2016.
- ^ "Russian State Duma: 'Possessed printer' or executor of the people's will?". themoscownews.com. 29 January 2014. Archived from the original on 1 March 2014.
- ^ a b "Russian MPs vote overwhelmingly to outlaw gay 'propaganda'". Euronews. 11 June 2013. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020.
- ^ Pierre, Bréchon (2011), Les partis politiques français, La documentation française
- ^ Analyse du scrutin n° 259 – Première séance du 12/02/2013 Results of the vote on the National Assembly's website
- ^ "Un député PCF contre le mariage gay" Archived 17 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine in Rouges & verts in Lemonde.fr, 11 January 2013
- ^ a b "Greek Communist Party on Cohabitation Agreement". Ριζοσπάστης. 20 December 2015. Archived from the original on 24 December 2015. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
- ^ "Δήλωση του Δημήτρη Κουτσούμπα για τη Διεθνή Ημέρα κατά της Ομοφοβίας". www.kke.gr (in Greek). Archived from the original on 17 May 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
- ^ "Greece's Mitsotakis makes progressive pivot with same-sex marriage bill". POLITICO. 7 February 2024. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
- ^ "SFI plans push for LGBTQ rights across campuses". The Indian Express. 16 October 2018. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
- ^ "In solidarity with LGBT community, CPI-M's youth arm demands education, job reservation for transgenders across India". Hindustan Times. 12 February 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
- ^ "AIDWA Bengal to take up LGBT rights for first time". Deccan Herald. 21 November 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
- ^ a b "CPI(M) Releases Manifesto, Proposes Stoppage Of Mass Surveillance, Min Wage Of 18,000 Per Month". Moneycontrol. 28 March 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
- ^ IANS (28 March 2014). "Manifestos bring hope to lesbians, gays et al (Election Special)". Business Standard India. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
- ^ "CPI-M releases manifesto, calls for anti-discriminatory bill covering LGBTQIA+". Mumbai Mirror. 29 March 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
- ^ Ghoshal, Somak (5 March 2014). "Politics | Rainbow coalition". livemint.com. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
- ^ "Out and proud: India's opposition parties embrace same-sex civil unions". South China Morning Post. 12 April 2024. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ^ "LGBTQ Policy – People Before Profit". Retrieved 15 April 2024.
- ^ "Rødt". roedt.no (in Norwegian). Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ^ "Promoting LGBT+ rights in Russia: The liberal view". Liberal International. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ^ Times, The Moscow (29 October 2015). "Russian Communist Party Members Want to Make Coming Out Illegal". The Moscow Times. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ^ Vanasco, Jennifer (3 March 2009). "Philippines ends ban on gays in military". 365 Gay. Archived from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
- ^ Jackman, Josh (26 February 2019). "Philippines president Rodrigo Duterte claims '40 percent' of rebels are gay". PinkNews. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
- ^ a b emir, serap (25 June 2023). "Komünist LGBT'ler: Onur Haftamız kutlu olsun! Eşit yurttaşlık sosyalizmde!". Türkiye Komünist Partisi (in Turkish). Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ^ Communist Youth of Turkey (25 June 2021). "Eşit yurttaşlık sosyalizmde!". Twitter. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
- ^ Goel, Taylor. "Interview with the Communist Party of Turkey: "Now is the time for socialism!" – Liberation News". Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ^ Staff, The New Arab (17 March 2021). "Turkish communist-led municipality to give LGBTQ workers Pride holiday". newarab.com. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ^ "Erkan Baş'tan Erdoğan'a sert sözler". www.cumhuriyet.com.tr (in Turkish). 29 June 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ^ Minute, Turkish (11 April 2023). "Workers' Party of Turkey nominates country's only transgender parliamentary candidate". Turkish Minute. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ^ English, Duvar (13 April 2023). "Trans women candidates from Turkish Workers' Party running for parliamentary seats". www.duvarenglish.com (in Turkish). Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ^ Kelliher 2014, pp. 12–13.
- .
- ^ Kelliher 2014, pp. xx.
- ^ "Identity politics are anti-Marxian and a harmful diversion from the class struggle". The Communists. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
- ^ "Why gay rights is not a class issue". The Communists. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
- ^ "The reactionary nightmare of 'gender fluidity'". The Communists. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
- ^ Communist Party of Great Britain (Marxist-Leninist) (12 July 2023). "This is video footage of an LGBT parade in Munich. Munich of the "Beerhall putsch"!". Twitter. Archived from the original on 15 April 2024.
- Revolutionary Communist Party.
- ^ "The Draft Programme of the RCP,USA". revcom.us. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
- ^ Perez, José G. (19 April 2004). "The SWP, Gay Liberation and Leninism". Socialist Workers Party. Archived from the original on 22 April 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
- ^ "Permanent Revolution in the U.S. Today". socialism.com. Trotskyist and Revolutionary Socialist Conference. 30 November 1985. Archived from the original on 23 January 2010. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
- League for the Revolutionary Party. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
- ^ "Über uns — DKP Queer" [About us — DKP Queer] (in German). DKP Queer; German Communist Party. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
DKP queer ist eine Kommission des Parteivorstandes der DKP, die sich mit Orientierung, Geschlechtern und Praktiken menschlicher Sexualität beschäftigt.
[DKP queer is an agency of the party executive committee of the DKP [the German Communist Party], which deals with [sexual] orientation, gender, and human sexual practises.] - ^ "Communist Party of Swaziland LGBTQI+ Protest". Twitter. 26 April 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
- ^ "EFF Statement on Ugandan Anti-Homosexuality Bill". Twitter. 21 April 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
- ^ Ellis, Jo (4 July 1999). "Homosexuality in Cuba: revolution within the revolution". greenleft.news.
- ^ Tatchell, Peter (Spring 2002). "Gay Rights and Wrongs in Cuba". Gay and Lesbian Humanist. Archived from the original on 21 August 2002. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ ]
- ^ a b "Gay and Lesbian Rights in Cuba" (PDF). Cuba Solidarity Campaign. p. 3.
- ^ Halatyn, Justin (24 October 2012). "From Persecution to Acceptance? The History of LGBT Rights in Cuba". Council on Hemispheric Affairs. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
- .
- .
- ^ "Gay and Lesbian Humanist - Gay Rights and Wrongs in Cuba". 21 August 2002. Archived from the original on 21 August 2002. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
- ^ Hatch, Marcel (26 July 2008). "Cuba: Celebrations of advancing gay rights". Green Left. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
- ^ Evans, Rachel (23 December 2011). "Rainbow Cuba: the sexual revolution within the revolution". Links International Journal of Socialist Renewal.
- ^ "Cuba marks Latin America's first LGBTQ+ history month". Reuters. 16 May 2022. Retrieved 19 July 2022.
- ^ Newton, Creede (2 August 2015). "Is Cuba becoming a haven for LGBT rights?". Al Jazeera.
- ^ "Cuba gay pride calls for same-sex marriage to become legal". BBC News. 10 May 2015.
- ^ Frank, Marc (26 September 2022). "Cubans approve gay marriage by large margin in referendum". Reuters. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
- ISBN 9781498502054.
- ^ Itaborahy, Lucas Paoli, ed. (2012). State-sponsored Homophobia: A world survey of laws criminalising same-sex sexual acts between consenting adults (PDF) (Report). International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association. p. 14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2012. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
- ^ "Décret № 47-229 du 19 novembre 1947 modifiant ou complétant les articles 12, 264, 302, 312, 317, 331, 332, 337, 339, 340, 341, 360, 405 et 483 du code pénal applicable en Afrique occidentale française" [Decree № 47-229 of 19 November 1947 modigying or completing articles ... of the penal code applicable to French West Africa]. Journal officiel de la République française (in French). 23 November 1947. p. 11569.
- ^ "Nakazatelen kodeks ot 1951 g. (Osobena chast – Prestŭpleniya protiv lichnostta / Prestŭpleniya protiv lichnata sobstvenost)" Наказателен кодекс от 1951 г. (Особена част – Престъпления против личността / Престъпления против личната собственост) [Penal Code 1951 (Special Part – Offenses against the Person / Offenses against Personal Property)] (in Bulgarian). 8 September 2009.
- ^ Ferreira, Lou (3 October 2018). "'Sexual liberation, socialist style': an overlooked women's rights story?". openDemocracy. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
- S2CID 35890719.
- ^ Carroll, Aengus, ed. (October 2016). "State-Sponsored Homophobia: A World Survey of Sexual Orientation Laws: Criminalisation, Protection and Recognition" (PDF) (11th ed.). ILGA.
- S2CID 258106215. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
- ^ Ammon, Richard. "A Brief History of Gay Poland".
- National Public Radio, Inc. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
- ^ "Legislație românească discriminatorie pentru LGBT – Istoric" [Discriminatory Romanian legislation for LGBT - History]. ACCEPT (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 4 September 2018. Retrieved 20 August 2016.
- ^ a b "Legislația românească privind homosexualitatea" [Romanian legislation on homosexuality]. suntgay.ro (in Romanian).
- ISBN 9780739105924.
- ^ "Scandaluri publice. Orientarea sexuală și legea penală în Romania" [Public scandals. Sexual orientation and criminal law in Romania] (PDF). Report by Human Rights Watch and International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission (in Romanian). ACCEPT. October 1988.
- ^ John, Kripa (31 August 2015). "Communism and Its Effect on Gay Rights in Romania". Washington State University. Archived from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 20 August 2016.
- ISBN 9780879758318.
- ^ "Somalia Country Assessment" (PDF). Refworld. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
- ^ Ali, Noor. "Gay Somali refugees face death threats". Al Jazeera.
- S2CID 42687288.
- ^ "Azerbaijan: Information on the Treatment of Homosexuals". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Archived from the original on 9 October 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
- ^ Berman, Harold Joseph, ed. (1966). Soviet criminal law and procedure: the RSFSR codes. Harvard University Press. p. 196.
- ISBN 9780415697132 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 9780306455322 – via Google Books.
- ^ a b "Resource Information Center". United States Citizenship and Immigration Services. 14 October 2015. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ^ a b Duberman 1989, p.362.
- ^ a b c d "Can a homosexual be a member of the Communist Party?". Workers World. 7 October 2004. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ^ Healey, Dan (2001). Homosexual Desire in Revolutionary Russia. p. 188.
- ^ "Proletarian Humanism" 23 May 1934
- ^ "Can a homosexual be a member of the Communist Party?". Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 28 June 2013.
- ^ Steakley, James. Gay Men and the Sexual History of the Political Left. Vol. 29. p. 170.
- ISBN 978-1-4051-9436-5.
- ^ "A History of Homophobia". The Moscow Times. Archived from the original on 8 March 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ^ The View from No. 13 People's Street. Aline Mosby. 1962
- ^ a b Barshay, Jill J. (10 February 1993). "Russia's Gay Men Step Out of Soviet-Era Shadows". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ^ Duberman 1989, p.363.
- ^ "Russian Gay History". Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ^ Kon, Igor (19 July 2011). "Soviet Homophobia". International Libertarian Socialist Alliance. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ISBN 9789287188632. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
- ^ a b "Povijest LGBTIQ aktivizma u Hrvatskoj: LGBT-Prava" [History of LGBTIQ activism in Croatia: LGBT-Rights] (in Serbo-Croatian). Lgbt-prava.ba. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
- ^ "Slovenia Age of Consent". Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ^ "Krivični zakonik (Sl.list FNRJ br. 13/51), član 186" [Criminal Code (Official Gazette of FNRJ No. 13/51), Article 186] (in Serbian). Archived from the original on 3 November 2013.
Za protivprirodni blud između lica muškog pola, učinilac će se kazniti zatvorom do dve godine.
[For unnatural fornication between persons of the male gender, the perpetrator will be punished with imprisonment for up to two years.] - ^ "Biti gej u SFRJ: zbog 'protuprirodnog bluda' osuđeno oko 500 muškaraca" [Being gay in SFRY: about 500 men convicted of 'unnatural fornication']. www.crol.hr. 15 February 2016. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
- ^ Vuletić, Dean (13 September 2002). "Drugovi po oružju: Homoseksualnost, istoriografija i Drugi svetski rat" [Comrades in arms: Homosexuality, historiography and the Second World War] (PDF) (in Serbo-Croatian). Fabrika knjiga. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
- ISBN 978-9958-577-02-4. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
- ^ "LGBTQ Timeline" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ISBN 9780976581222 – via Google Books.
Bibliography
- Kelliher, Diarmaid (2014). "Solidarity and Sexuality: Lesbians and Gays Support the Miners 1984–5". S2CID 41955541.
- Skeates, Les (1 March 2007). "Remembering Mark Ashton and Some 'Lost' Time". Outside The Gates. Archived from the original on 13 August 2007.
- Timmons, Stuart (1990). The Trouble with Harry Hay: Founder of the Modern Gay Movement. Boston: Alyson Publications. ISBN 978-1555831752.
- ^ Heidi Minning. Who is the 'I' in "I love you"?: The negotiation of gay and lesbian identities in former East Berlin, Germany. Anthropology of East Europe Review, Volume 18, Number 2, Autumn 2000
- Abrahams, Fred (1996). Human Rights in Post-Communist Albania. ISBN 9781564321602. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- Robinson, Lucy (2007). Gay men and the left in post-war Britain: How the personal got political. .