Company rule in India
Company rule in India | |||||||||||||||||||||||
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1757/1765/1773–1858 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Calcutta | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Common languages | Official: 1773–1858: English; 1773–1836: Persian[1][2] 1837–1858: primarily Urdu[1][2][3][4] but also: Languages of South Asia. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Government | Administered by the East India Company functioning as a quasi-sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown and regulated by the British Parliament | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Governor-General | |||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1774–1785 (first) | Warren Hastings | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1857–1858 (last) | Charles Canning | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Historical era | Anglo-Maratha Wars | 1772–1818 | |||||||||||||||||||||
1845–1846, 1848–1849 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
2 August 1858 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
• Nationalisation of the Company and assumption of direct administration by the British crown | 2 August 1858 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||||||||||||||
1858[5] | 1,940,000 km2 (750,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Currency | Rupee | ||||||||||||||||||||||
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Company rule in India (sometimes Company Raj,
Expansion and territory
The
The company's victory under
The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions, which collectively came to comprise
The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company's hegemony in return for limited internal autonomy. Since the Company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up political underpinnings for its rule.[12] The most important such support came from the subsidiary alliances with Indian princes during the first 75 years of Company rule.[12] In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-third of India.[12] When an Indian ruler, who was able to secure his territory, wanted to enter such an alliance, the Company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule, which did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.[13]
In return, the Company undertook the "defence of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor."
The Governors-General
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2022) |
(The Governors-General (
Governor-General | Period of Tenure | Events |
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Warren Hastings | 20 October 1773 – 1 February 1785 | Rohilla War (1773–74) (1780–1784)
First Anglo-Maratha War (1777–83) Chalisa famine (1783–84) Second Anglo-Mysore War |
Charles Cornwallis | 12 September 1786 – 28 October 1793 | Cornwallis Code (1793) Permanent Settlement Cochin become semi-protected States under British (1791) Third Anglo-Mysore War (1789–92) Doji bara famine (1791–92) |
John Shore | 28 October 1793 – March 1798 | Ceylon from Dutch (1796).
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Richard Wellesley | 18 May 1798 – 30 July 1805 | princely states , of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs.
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Charles Cornwallis (second term) | 30 July 1805 – 5 October 1805 | Financial strain in East India Company after costly campaigns. Cornwallis reappointed to bring peace, but dies in Ghazipur. |
locum tenens ) |
10 October 1805 – 31 July 1807 | Vellore mutiny (10 July 1806)
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Lord Minto | 31 July 1807 – 4 October 1813 | Invasion of Java Occupation of Mauritius |
Marquess of Hastings | 4 October 1813 – 9 January 1823 | Cutch accepts British suzerainty (1818). (1819).
Gaikwads of Baroda accept British suzerainty (1819). Central India Agency |
Lord Amherst |
1 August 1823 – 13 March 1828 | from Burma |
William Bentinck | 4 July 1828 – 20 March 1835 | Coorg annexed (1834).
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Lord Auckland | 4 March 1836 – 28 February 1842 | Massacre of Elphinstone's army (1842).
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Lord Ellenborough | 28 February 1842 – June 1844 | First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–42) Annexation of Sindh (1843) Indian Slavery Act, 1843 |
Henry Hardinge | 23 July 1844 – 12 January 1848 | Treaty of Amritsar (1846).
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Marquess of Dalhousie | 12 January 1848 – 28 February 1856 | Lower Burma were introduced. (1854).Ganges Canal opened (1854) Annexation of Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambalpur (1849), Nagpur and Jhansi (1854) under Doctrine of Lapse. Annexation of Berar (1853) and Awadh (1856). Postage Stamps for India Public Telegram services starts operation (1855). |
Charles Canning | 28 February 1856 – 1 November 1858 | English East India Company under Government of India Act 1858[16]
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Regulation of Company rule
Until Clive's victory at
Although
In 1783, the
Mindful of the reports of abuse and corruption in Bengal by Company servants, the India Act itself noted numerous complaints that "'divers Rajahs, Zemindars, Polygars, Talookdars, and landholders' had been unjustly deprived of 'their lands, jurisdictions, rights, and privileges'".[28] At the same time the company's directors were now leaning towards Francis's view that the land-tax in Bengal should be made fixed and permanent, setting the stage for the Permanent Settlement (see section Revenue collection below).[29] The India Act also created in each of the three presidencies a number of administrative and military posts, which included: a Governor and three Councilors, one of which was the Commander in Chief of the Presidency army.[30] Although the supervisory powers of the Governor-General-in-Council in Bengal (over Madras and Bombay) were extended—as they were again in the Charter Act of 1793—the subordinate presidencies continued to exercise some autonomy until both the extension of British possessions into becoming contiguous and the advent of faster communications in the next century.[31]
Still, the new Governor-General appointed in 1786,
British political opinion was also shaped by the attempted Impeachment of Warren Hastings; the trial, whose proceedings began in 1788, ended with Hastings' acquittal, in 1795.[34] Although the effort was chiefly coordinated by Edmund Burke, it also drew support from within the British government.[34] Burke accused Hastings not only of corruption, but—appealing to universal standards of justice—also of acting solely upon his own discretion, without concern for law, and of wilfully causing distress to others in India. Hastings' defenders countered that his actions were consistent with Indian customs and traditions.[34] Although Burke's speeches at the trial drew applause and focused attention on India, Hastings was eventually acquitted, due in part to the revival of nationalism in Britain in the wake of the French Revolution. Nonetheless, Burke's effort had the effect of creating a sense of responsibility in British public life for the company's dominion in India.[34]
Soon rumblings appeared amongst merchants in London that the monopoly granted to the East India Company in 1600, intended to facilitate its competition against
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A view of Calcutta from Fort William, 1807.
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Government House, Fort St. George, Madras, the headquarters of the Madras Presidency.
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Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General of Fort William (Bengal) who oversaw the Company's territories in India.
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The trial of Warren Hastings in the Court of Westminster Hall, 1789.
Revenue collection
In the remnant of the
In 1772, under Warren Hastings, the East India Company took over revenue collection directly in the Bengal Presidency (then Bengal and Bihar), establishing a Board of Revenue with offices in Calcutta and Patna, and moving the pre-existing Mughal revenue records from Murshidabad to Calcutta.[40] In 1773, after
The Company inherited a revenue collection system from the Mughals in which the heaviest proportion of the tax burden fell on the cultivators, with one-third of the production reserved for imperial entitlement; this pre-colonial system became the Company revenue policy's baseline.
In 1793, the new Governor-General,
However, these expectations were not realised in practice, and in many regions of Bengal, the peasants bore the brunt of the increased demand, there being little protection for their traditional rights in the new legislation.[48] Forced labour of the peasants by the zamindars became more prevalent as cash crops were cultivated to meet the Company revenue demands.[42] Although commercialised cultivation was not new to the region, it had now penetrated deeper into village society and made it more vulnerable to market forces.[42] The zamindars themselves were often unable to meet the increased demands that the company had placed on them;[49] consequently, many defaulted, and by one estimate, up to one-third of their lands were auctioned during the first two decades following the permanent settlement. The new owners were often Brahmin and Kayastha employees of the Company who had a good grasp of the new system, and, in many cases, some had prospered under it.[50]
Since the zamindars were never able to undertake costly improvements to the land envisaged under the Permanent Settlement, some of which required the removal of the existing farmers, they soon became rentiers who lived off the rent from their tenant farmers.
The zamindari system was one of two principal revenue settlements undertaken by the Company in India.
Land revenue settlements constituted a major administrative activity of the various governments in India under Company rule.[12] Additionally, a tax was imposed at each stage of production. This tax extended to the majority of goods sold, even those within the local community. However, only a small portion of the tax revenue was allocated towards the development of infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and waterways.[55] In all areas other than the Bengal Presidency, land settlement work involved a continually repetitive process of surveying and measuring plots, assessing their quality, and recording landed rights, and constituted a large proportion of the work of Indian Civil Service officers working for the government.[12] After the Company lost its trading rights, it became the single most important source of government revenue, roughly half of overall revenue in the middle of the 19th century;[12] even so, between the years 1814 and 1859, the government of India ran debts in 33 years.[12] With expanded dominion, even during non-deficit years, there was just enough money to pay the salaries of a threadbare administration, a skeleton police force, and the army.[12]
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A riverside scene in rural east Bengal (present-day Bangladesh), 1860
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Charles Cornwallis, the Governor-General of India when Permanent Settlement was introduced
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A Kochh Mandai woman of east Bengal with an agricultural knife and a freshly harvested jackfruit (1860)
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Paddy fields in the Madras Presidency, c. 1880. Two-thirds of the presidency fell under the Ryotwari system.
Army and civil service
In 1772, when Hastings became the first Governor-General one of his first undertakings was the rapid expansion of the Presidency's army. Since the available soldiers, or
East India Company armies after the Re-organisation of 1796[61] | |||
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British troops | Indian troops | ||
Bengal Presidency | Madras Presidency | Bombay Presidency | |
24,000 | 24,000 | 9,000 | |
13,000 | Total Indian troops: 57,000 | ||
Grand total, British and Indian troops: 70,000 |
The
In 1796, under pressure from the company's board of directors in London, the Indian troops were re-organised and reduced during the tenure of John Shore as Governor-General.[61] However, the closing years of the 18th century saw, with Wellesley's campaigns, a new increase in the army strength. Thus in 1806, at the time of the Vellore Mutiny, the combined strength of the three presidencies' armies stood at 154,500, making them one of the largest standing armies in the world.[62]
East India Company armies on the eve of the Vellore Mutiny of 1806[63] | |||
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Presidencies | British troops | Indian troops | Total |
Bengal | 7,000 | 57,000 | 64,000 |
Madras | 11,000 | 53,000 | 64,000 |
Bombay | 6,500 | 20,000 | 26,500 |
Total | 24,500 | 130,000 | 154,500 |
As the East India Company expanded its territories, it added irregular "local corps", which were not as well trained as the army.
East India Company armies on the eve of the Indian rebellion of 1857[65]
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Presidencies | British troops | Indian troops | |||||||
Cavalry | Artillery | Infantry | Total | Cavalry | Artillery | Sappers & Miners |
Infantry | Total | |
Bengal | 1,366 | 3,063 | 17,003 | 21,432 | 19,288 | 4,734 | 1,497 | 112,052 | 137,571 |
Madras | 639 | 2,128 | 5,941 | 8,708 | 3,202 | 2,407 | 1,270 | 42,373 | 49,252 |
Bombay | 681 | 1,578 | 7,101 | 9,360 | 8,433 | 1,997 | 637 | 33,861 | 44,928 |
Local forces and contingents |
6,796 | 2,118 | 23,640 | 32,554 | |||||
" " (unclassified) |
7,756 | ||||||||
Military police | 38,977 | ||||||||
Total | 2,686 | 6,769 | 30,045 | 39,500 | 37,719 | 11,256 | 3,404 | 211,926 | 311,038 |
Grand Total, British and Indian troops | 350,538 |
In the Indian rebellion of 1857 almost the entire Bengal army, both regular and irregular, revolted.[65] It has been suggested that after the annexation of Oudh by the East India Company in 1856, many sepoys were disquieted both from losing their perquisites, as landed gentry, in the Oudh courts and from the anticipation of any increased land-revenue payments that the annexation might augur.[66] With British victories in wars or with annexation, as the extent of British jurisdiction expanded, the soldiers were now not only expected to serve in less familiar regions (such as in Burma in the Anglo-Burmese Wars in 1856), but also make do without the "foreign service", remuneration that had previously been their due, and this caused resentment in the ranks.[67] The Bombay and Madras armies, and the Hyderabad contingent, however, remained loyal. The Punjab Irregular Force not only did not revolt, it played an active role in suppressing the mutiny.[65] The rebellion led to a complete re-organisation of the Indian army in 1858 in the new British Raj.
Civil service
The reforms initiated after 1784 were designed to create an elite civil service where very talented young Britons would spend their entire careers. Advanced training was promoted especially at the East India Company College (until 1853).[68] Haileybury emphasised the Anglican religion and morality and trained students in the classical Indian languages. Many students held to Whiggish, evangelical, and Utilitarian convictions of their duty to represent their nation and to modernise India. At most there were about 600 of these men who managed the Raj's customs service, taxes, justice system, and its general administration.[69][failed verification][70][failed verification] The company's original policy was one of "Orientalism", that is of adjusting to the way of life and customs of the Indian people and not trying to reform them. That changed after 1813, as the forces of reform in the home country, especially evangelical religion, Whiggish political outlook, and Utilitarian philosophy worked together to make the company an agent of Anglicization and modernisation. Christian missionaries became active, but made few converts. The Raj set out to outlaw sati (widow-burning) and thuggee (ritual banditry) and upgrade the status of women. Schools would be established in which they would teach the English language. The 1830s and 1840s, however, were not times of prosperity: After its heavy spending on the military, the company had little money to engage in large-scale public works projects or modernisation programs.[71]
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A Royal Artillery encampment atArcot, Madras Presidency, 1804.
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red coats outside Tipu Sultan's former summer palace in Bangalore, 1804
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Military Orphan School for private soldiers of the East India Company, Howrah, Bengal Presidency, 1794.
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A new "writer" in the East India Company Civil Service arrives in Calcutta. Apalanquintransport awaits him.
Trade
After gaining the right to collect revenue in Bengal in 1765, the Company largely ceased importing gold and silver, which it had hitherto used to pay for goods shipped back to Britain.[72]
Years | Bullion (£) | Average per annum |
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1708/9-1733/4 | 12,189,147 | 420,315 |
1734/5-1759/60 | 15,239,115 | 586,119 |
1760/1-1765/6 | 842,381 | 140,396 |
1766/7-1771/2 | 968,289 | 161,381 |
1772/3-1775/6 | 72,911 | 18,227 |
1776/7-1784/5 | 156,106 | 17,345 |
1785/6-1792/3 | 4,476,207 | 559,525 |
1793/4-1809/10 | 8,988,165 | 528,715 |
In addition, as under Mughal Empire rule, land revenue collected in the Bengal Presidency helped finance the company's wars in other parts of India.
At this time, the East India Company's trade with China began to grow as well. In the early 19th century, demand for
Another major, though erratic, export item was
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"Mellor Mill" in Marple, Greater Manchester, England, was constructed in 1790–1793 for manufacturing muslin cloth.
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Opium Godown (Storehouse) in Patna, Bihar (c. 1814). Patna was the centre of the Company opium industry.
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Indigo dye factory in Bengal. Bengal was the world's largest producer of natural indigo in the 19th century.
Justice system
Until the British gained control of Bengal in the mid-18th century, the system of justice there was presided over by the Nawab of Bengal himself, who, as the chief law officer, Nawāb Nāzim, attended to cases qualifying for capital punishment in his headquarters, Murshidabad. His deputy, the Naib Nāzim, attended to the slightly less important cases. The ordinary lawsuits belonged to the jurisdiction of a hierarchy of court officials consisting of faujdārs, muhtasils, and kotwāls. In the rural areas, or the Mofussil, the zamindars—the rural overlords with the hereditary right to collect rent from peasant farmers—also had the power to administer justice. This they did with little routine oversight, being required to report only their judgments in capital punishment cases to the Nawāb.
By the mid-18th century, the British too had completed a century and a half in India, and had a burgeoning presence in the three presidency towns of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta. During this time the successive
After its victory in the Battle of Buxar, the Company obtained in 1765 the Diwāni of Bengal, the right not only to collect revenue, but also to administer civil justice in Bengal. The administration of criminal justice, the Nizāmat or Faujdāri, however, remained with the Nawāb, and for criminal cases the prevailing Islamic law remained in place. However, the company's new duties associated with the Diwāni were leased out to the Indian officials who had formerly performed them. This makeshift arrangement continued—with much accompanying disarray—until 1771, when the Court of Directors of the Company decided to obtain for the company the jurisdiction of both criminal and civil cases.
Soon afterwards Warren Hastings arrived in Calcutta as the first Governor-General of the company's Indian dominions and resolved to overhaul the company's organisation and in particular its judicial affairs. In the interior, or Mofussil, diwāni adālats, or a
Similarly for criminal cases, Mofussil nizāmat adālats, or Provincial
Around this time the business affairs of the East India Company began to draw increased scrutiny in the
There was a good likelihood, therefore, that the Supreme Court and the Sadr Adālats would act in opposition to each other and, predictably, many disputes resulted. Hastings' premature attempt to appoint the Chief Justice,
In the other two presidencies,
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The house of Sir Thomas Strange, who in 1800 became the first Chief Justice of the Fort of St. George (Madras) and wrote Elements of Hindu Law (1825).
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An 1833 Lithograph of the Sadr Diwāni Adālat, the Chief Civil Court for Indians, on Chowringhee Road, Calcutta.
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Coloured engraving of the judges and officers of Hindu (top row) and Muslim (bottom row) law in the Recorder Court in Bombay, 1805.
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The Court-House Building on Apollo Street, Bombay (third building on left, just beyond the domed Ice House) shown in 1850.
Education
Education of Indians had become a topic of interest among East India Company officials from the outset of the company's rule in Bengal.[83] In the last two decades of the 18th century and the first decade of the nineteenth, Company officials pursued a policy of conciliation towards the native culture of its new dominion, especially in relation to education policy.[83] During the 19th century, the Indian literacy rates were rumoured to be less than half of post independence levels which were 18.33% in 1951. The policy was pursued in the aid of three goals: "to sponsor Indians in their own culture, to advance knowledge of India, and to employ that knowledge in government".[83]
The first goal was supported by some administrators, such as Warren Hastings, who envisaged the company as the successor of a great Empire, and saw the support of vernacular learning as only befitting that role. In 1781, Hastings founded the
The second goal was motivated by the concerns among some Company officials about being seen as foreign rulers. They argued that the company should try to win over its subjects by outdoing the region's previous rulers in the support of indigenous learning. Guided by this belief, the
The third related goal grew out of the philosophy then current among some Company officials that they would themselves become better administrators if they were better versed in the languages and cultures of India. It led in 1800 to the founding of the
The Orientalists were, however, soon opposed by advocates of an approach that has been termed
However, the Anglicists also included
Since English was increasingly being employed as the language of instruction, Persian was abolished as the official language of the company's administration and courts by 1837. However, bilingual educations was proving to be popular as well, and some institutions such as the Poona Sanskrit College commenced teaching both Sanskrit and English. Charles Grant's son,
- Establishing a Department of Public Instruction in each presidency or province of British India.
- Establishing universities modelled on the University of London (as primarily examining institutions for students studying in affiliated colleges) in each of the Presidency towns (i.e. Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta)
- Establishing teachers-training schools for all levels of instruction
- Maintaining existing Government colleges and high-schools and increasing their number when necessary.
- Vastly increasing vernacular schools for elementary education in villages.
- Introducing a system of private schools.
The Department of Public Instruction was in place by 1855. In January 1857, the
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A coloured-in photograph (1851) of Hindu College, Calcutta, which had been founded in 1817 by a committee headed byPresidency Collegeand opened it to all students.
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An engraving (1844) of a youth, who according to the engraver, Emily Eden, was "a favourite and successful young student at theHindu Collegein Calcutta, where scholars acquire a very perfect knowledge of English, and have a familiarity with the best English writers".
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An 1844 engraving ofGrant Medical College (left) and Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy Hospital(right background) in Bombay made by G. R. Sargeant the year before the medical college was formally opened.
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An 1855 photograph of the same two institutions. In 1857, Grant Medical College became one of three institutions affiliated with the newly establishedUniversity of Bombay. The college was funded partly by the Jeejeebhoy family and partly by the East India Company.
Social reform
In the first half of the 19th century, the British legislated reforms against what they considered were iniquitous Indian practices. In most cases, the legislation alone was unable to change Indian society sufficiently for it to absorb both the ideal and the ethic underpinning the reform. For example, upper-caste Hindu society in the Indo-Aryan speaking regions of India had long looked askance at the remarriage of widows in order to protect both what it considered was family honour and family property. Even adolescent widows were expected to live a life of austerity and denial.[87][88][89] The Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856, enacted in the waning years of Company rule, provided legal safeguards against loss of certain forms of inheritance for a remarrying Hindu widow, though not of the inheritance due her from her deceased husband. However, very few widows actually remarried. Some Indian reformers, such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, even offered money to men who would take widows as brides, but these men often deserted their new wives.
Post and telegraph
Postal services
Before 1837, the East India Company's dominions in India had no universal public
After the recommendations of the commission appointed in 1850 to evaluate the Indian postal system were received, Act XVII of 1837 was superseded by the Indian Postal Act of 1854. Under its provisions, the entire postal department was headed by a Director-General, and the duties of a Postmaster-General were set apart from those of a Presidency Postmaster; the former administered the postal system of the larger provinces (such as the
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Lithograph of the General Post Office on Chowringhee Street, Calcutta, 1833, four years before the India-wide postal service was established under the Indian Postal Act of 1837.
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Two four anna stamps issued in 1854. Stamps were issued for the first time for all of British India in 1854. The lowest denomination was 1⁄2 anna blue, followed by 1 anna red, and 4 annas blue and red. The stamps were printed from lithographic stones at the Surveyor-General's Office in Calcutta.
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Since the four anna stamps were composed of two colours, they required two different printings, one for Queen Victoria's head in blue, and the other for the surrounding red frame. In these, rare stamps, shown on a letter mailed from Bombay to Venice, the head was accidentally oriented upside-down in relation to the frame.
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Asemaphore"telegraph" signalling tower in Silwar (Bihar), 13 February 1823, thirty years before electric telegraphy was rapidly introduced into India by the East India Company.
Telegraphy
Before the advent of
O'Shaughnessy's experimental set-up of 1851–52 consisted of both overhead and underground lines; the latter included underwater ones that crossed two rivers, the
Work on the long lines from Calcutta to
The first Telegraph Act for India was Parliament's Act XXXIV of 1854. When the public telegramme service was first set up in 1855, the charge was fixed at one rupee for every sixteen words (including the address) for every 400 miles of transmission. The charges were doubled for telegrammes sent between 6PM and 6AM. These rates would remain fixed until 1882. In the year 1860–61, two years after the end of Company rule, India had 11,093 miles of telegraph lines and 145 telegraph offices. That year telegrams totalling
Railways
The first inter-city railway service in England, the Stockton and Darlington Railway, had been established in 1825;[94] in the following decade other inter-city railways were rapidly constructed between cities in England. In 1845, the Court of Directors of the East India Company, forwarded to the Governor-General of India, Lord Dalhousie, a number of applications they had received from private contractors in England for the construction of a wide-ranging railway network in India, and requested a feasibility report. They added that, in their view, the enterprise would be profitable only if large sums of money could be raised for the construction. The Court was concerned that in addition to the usual difficulties encountered in the construction of this new form of transportation, India might present some unique problems, among which they counted floods, tropical storms in coastal areas, damage by "insects and luxuriant tropical vegetation", and the difficulty of finding qualified technicians at a reasonable cost. It was suggested, therefore, that three experimental lines be constructed and their performance evaluated.[95]
Contracts were awarded in 1849 to the
The feasibility of a train network in India was comprehensively discussed by Lord Dalhousie in his Railway minute of 1853. The Governor-General vigorously advocated the quick and widespread introduction of railways in India, pointing to their political, social, and economic advantages. He recommended that a network of trunk lines be first constructed connecting the inland regions of each presidency with its chief port as well as each presidency with several others. His recommended trunk lines included the following ones: (i) from Calcutta, in the
During this time work had been proceeding on the experimental lines as well. The first leg of the East Indian Railway line, a
Each of the three companies (and later five others that were given contracts in 1859) was a
The technology of railway construction was still new and there was no railway engineering expertise in India; consequently, all engineers had to be brought in from England. These engineers were unfamiliar not only with the language and culture of India, but also with the physical aspect of the land itself and its concomitant engineering requirements. Moreover, never before had such a large and complex construction project been undertaken in India, and no pool of semi-skilled labour was already organised to aid the engineers. The work, therefore, proceeded in fits and starts—many practical trials followed by a final construction that was undertaken with great caution and care—producing an outcome that was later criticised as being "built to a standard which was far in excess of the needs to the time". The Government of India's administrators, moreover, made up in their attention to the fine details of expenditure and management what they lacked in professional expertise. The resulting delays soon led to the appointment of a Committee of the House of Commons in 1857–58 to investigate the matter. However, by the time the Committee concluded that all parties needed to honour the spirit rather than the letter of the contracts, Company rule in India had ended.
Although, railway construction had barely begun in the last years of this rule, its foundations had been laid, and it would proceed apace for much of the next half century. By the turn of the 20th century, India would have over 28,000 miles of railways connecting most interior regions to the ports of Karachi, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta,
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Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay.
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Photograph (1858) of the Dapoorie viaduct over the Mula River near Poona in Bombay Presidency.[97]
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Photograph (1897) of the first locomotive, shown on the right and christened "multum in parvo" (barely visible on the wheel casing), which was used by the East Indian Railway Company in 1854 on its 23-mile line from Howrah to Pandua.
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The trunk lines proposed by the Governor-General of India, Lord Dalhousie in his Railway minute of 1853 (shown in red on a 1908 railway map of India).
Canals
The first irrigation works undertaken during East India Company's rule were begun in 1817. Consisting chiefly of extensions or reinforcements of previous Indian works, these projects were limited to the plains north of Delhi and to the river deltas of the
In plains above Delhi, the mid-14th century
Farther west in the
The first new British work—with no Indian antecedents—was the Ganges Canal built between 1842 and 1854.[100] Contemplated first by Col.
The enthusiasm, however, proved to be short lived. Auckland's successor as Governor General,
It was the largest canal ever attempted in the world, five times greater in its length than all the main irrigating lines of Lombardy and Egypt put together, and longer by a third than even the largest USA navigation canal, the Pennsylvania Canal.[104]
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Watercolor (1863) titled "TheSaharanpur District (U.P.)". The canal was the brainchild of Sir Proby Cautley; construction began in 1840, and the canal was opened by Governor-General Lord Dalhousie in April 1854
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Photograph (2008) of an East India Company-era (1854) bridge on the Ganges Canal near Roorkee, Uttar Pradesh, India.
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Photograph (1860) of the head works of the Ganges Canal in Haridwar taken by Samuel Bourne
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Photograph (2008) of the head works of the Ganges Canal in Haridwar, viewed from the opposite side.
See also
Colonial India | ||||||||||||||
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- British India
- British Raj
- Economic deindustrialisation of India
- Glossary of the British Raj (Urdu words)
- Government of India Act 1858
- Governor-General of India
- History of Bangladesh
- History of India
- History of Pakistan
- Opium Trading in Mumbai
- Secretary of State for India
- The History of British India
Notes
- ^ ISBN 978-1-108-49564-6,
"Hindoostanee" was instrumental for Company rule in that Gilchrist's grammar books, dictionaries, and translations helped to standardize Urdu as an official language for lower level judicial courts and revenue administration in 1837, replacing Persian.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-20145-3,
In 1837 Urdu was formally adopted by the British, in place of Perisan, as the language of interaction between the Government (which from then on conducted its affairs in English) and the local population.
- ISBN 978-90-04-18223-3,
It was only in 1837 that Persian lost its position as official language of India to Urdu and to English in the higher levels of administration.
- ISBN 978-0-521-66360-1,
Paradoxically, many British also clung to Persian. Indeed, the so-called Urdu that replaced Persian as the court language after 1837 was recognisably Persian as far as its nouns were concerned. The courtly heritage of Persian was also to exercise a constraint on the British cultivation of Hindustani/Urdu.
- ISBN 978-0-8160-7229-3.
- ^ Robb 2002, pp. 116–147 "Chapter 5: Early Modern India II: Company Raj", Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 56–91 "Chapter 3: The East India Company Raj, 1857–1850," Bose & Jalal 2004, pp. 53–59 "Chapter 7: The First Century of British Rule, 1757 to 1857: State and Economy."
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1989: Hindi, rāj, from Skr. rāj: to reign, rule; cognate with L. rēx, rēg-is, OIr. rī, rīg king (see RICH).
- ^ Bose & Jalal 2004, pp. 47, 53
- ^ Brown 1994, p. 46, Peers 2006, p. 30
- ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 56
- ISBN 9781843310044.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Brown 1994, p. 67
- ^ a b Brown 1994, p. 68
- ^ Ludden 2002, p. 133
- ^ "British East India Company captures Aden". Wolfram Alpha. Archived from the original on 1 May 2021. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ^ "Official, India". World Digital Library. 1890–1923. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2013.
- ^ a b c Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 76, Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909, p. 14
- ^ Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909, p. 14, Peers 2006, p. 35, Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 76
- ^ a b Peers 2006, p. 35
- ^ a b Marshall 2007, p. 207
- ^ a b c Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909, p. 14
- ^ a b Marshall 2007, p. 197
- ^ a b c Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 77
- ^ a b Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909, p. 14, Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 77
- ^ "in Council", i.e. in concert with the advice of the Council.
- ISBN 978-1-84595-091-0.
- ^ Travers 2007, p. 211
- ^ a b Quoted in Travers 2007, p. 213
- ^ Guha 1995, p. 161
- ^ Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 78
- ^ a b c d e f Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909, p. 15
- ^ Travers 2007, p. 213
- ^ a b Peers 2006, p. 36
- ^ a b c d Peers 2006, pp. 36–37
- ^ a b c Ludden 2002, p. 134
- ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 20
- ^ a b c Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 78
- ^ a b Peers 2006, p. 47, Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 78
- ^ a b c d Peers 2006, p. 47
- ^ a b c d Robb 2002, pp. 126–129
- ^ Brown 1994, p. 55
- ^ a b c d e f Peers 2006, pp. 45–47
- ^ Peers 2006, pp. 45–47, Robb 2002, pp. 126–129
- ^ Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 82
- ^ Marshall 1987, pp. 141, 144
- ^ Robb 2002, p. 127
- ^ Guha 1995
- ^ a b Bose 1993
- ^ Tomlinson 1993, p. 43
- ^ a b c d Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 78–79
- ISBN 978-0-19-565154-6.
- ^ a b c d Brown 1994, p. 66
- ^ Robb 2002, p. 128
- ^ Peers 2006, p. 47, Brown 1994, p. 65
- ISBN 978-81-250-2731-7. Retrieved 20 April 2024. Quote="Further, the duty was levied on every stage of manufacture......The duty was levied on nearly all goods sold even within the village.......A minute fraction of the tax collection was spent on roads and bridges and almost nothing on inland navigation"
- ^ a b c d e f g Bayly 1987, pp. 84–86
- ISBN 9788182201675. Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
- ^ L.Krishna Anandha Krishna Iyer(Divan Bahadur) The Cochin Tribes and Caste Archived 7 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine Vol.1. Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1962. Page. 278, Google Books
- ISBN 978-0-19-099207-1. Archivedfrom the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 25 September 2022.
- ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 61
- ^ a b Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909, p. 333
- ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 61, Bayly 1987, pp. 84–86
- ^ Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909, p. 335
- ^ a b c d e f Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909, p. 337
- ^ a b c Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909, p. 338
- ^ Brown 1994, p. 88
- ^ Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 171, Bose & Jalal 2004, pp. 70–72
- ^ Puri, B. N. (1967). "The Training of Civil Servants under the Company". Journal of Indian History. 45 (135): 749–771.
- ^ David Gilmour, The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj (2005)
- ^ Colin Newbury, "Patronage and Professionalism: Manning a Transitional Empire, 1760–1870". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History (2013) 42#2 pp: 193–213.
- ISBN 9781317897651.
- ^ a b c d Robb 2002, pp. 131–134
- ISBN 978-1-351-99749-2.
- ^ a b c Peers 2006, pp. 48–49
- ^ Farnie 1979, p. 33
- ^ Misra 1999, p. 18
- ^ a b Peers 2006, p. 49
- ^ Washbrook 2001, p. 403
- ^ a b Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 76
- ^ a b Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 125
- ^ a b Bose & Jalal 2004, p. 57
- ^ Bose & Jalal 2004, pp. 57, 110
- ^ a b c Robb 2002, p. 137
- ^ Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909, p. 413
- ^ a b Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909, p. 414
- ^ Stokes 1986, Brown 1994, p. 91
- ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8,
Therefore, by the time of the Mauryan Empire the position of women in mainstream Indo-Aryan society seems to have deteriorated. Customs such as child marriage and dowry were becoming entrenched; and a young women's purpose in life was to provide sons for the male lineage into which she married. To quote the Arthashāstra: 'wives are there for having sons'. Practices such as female infanticide and the neglect of young girls were also developing at this time. Further, due to the increasingly hierarchical nature of the society, marriage was becoming a mere institution for childbearing and the formalization of relationships between groups. In turn, this may have contributed to the growth of increasingly instrumental attitudes towards women and girls (who moved home at marriage). It is important to note that, in all likelihood, these developments did not affect people living in large parts of the subcontinent—such as those in the south, and tribal communities inhabiting the forested hill and plateau areas of central and eastern India. That said, these deleterious features have continued to blight Indo-Aryan speaking areas of the subcontinent until the present day
- Dharmashastraare not quaint relics of the distant past, but alive and recurrent in India today – as the attempts to revive the custom of sati (widow immolation) in recent decades has shown.
- ISBN 0-253-21267-7,
The legal rights, as well as the ideal images, of women were increasingly circumscribed during the Gupta era. The Laws of Manu, compiled from about 200 to 400 C.E., came to be the most prominent evidence that this era was not necessarily a golden age for women. Through a combination of legal injunctions and moral prescriptions, women were firmly tied to the patriarchal family, ... Thus the Laws of Manu severely reduced the property rights of women, recommended a significant difference in ages between husband and wife and the relatively early marriage of women, and banned widow remarriage. Manu's preoccupation with chastity reflected possibly a growing concern for the maintenance of inheritance rights in the male line, a fear of women undermining the increasingly rigid caste divisions, and a growing emphasis on male asceticism as a higher spiritual calling.
- ^ Majumdar, Mohini Lal. The imperial post offices of British India, 1837–1914 (Phila Publications, 1990)
- JSTOR 20762428.
- ^ Rahman, Siddique Mahmudur (2002). "Postal Services During The East India Company's Rule In Bengal". Bangladesh Historical Studies. 19: 43.
- S2CID 111443299.
- ^ Stockton and Darlington Railway
- .
- ^ Thorner, Daniel. "Great Britain and the development of India's railways". Journal of Economic History 1951; 11(4): 389–402. online
- ISBN 978-93-88414-23-4
- ^ a b Stone 2002, p. 13
- ^ Stone 2002, p. 15
- ^ Stone 2002, p. 16
- ^ Stone 2002, pp. 16–17
- ^ Stone 2002, p. 17
- ^ Stone 2002, pp. 17–18
- ^ Stone 2002, p. 18
References
General histories
- Bandyopadhyay, Sekhara (2004). From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India. New Delhi: Orient Longman. ISBN 978-81-250-2596-2.
- ISBN 978-0-521-38650-0..
- Bayly, C.A. The Raj: India and the British 1600–1947 (1990)
- ISBN 978-0-415-30786-4.
- Brown, Judith Margaret (1994). Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-873112-2.
- Dalrymple, William (2019). The Anarchy: The Relentless Rise of the East India Company (Hardcover). New York: Bloomsbury publishing. ISBN 978-1-63557-395-4.
- Judd, Denis (2010). The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600–1947. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280579-9.
- Lawson, Philip (1993). The East India Company: A History (Routledge) excerpt and text search
- Ludden, David (2002). India and South Asia: A Short History. Oneworld. ISBN 978-1-85168-237-9.
- Markovits, Claude (2004). A History of Modern India, 1480–1950. Anthem Press. ISBN 978-1-84331-152-2. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-521-86362-9.
- ISBN 978-0715621691.
- Peers, Douglas M. (2006). India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-31738-3.
- Riddick, John F. (2006). The History of British India: A Chronology excerpt and text search, covers 1599–1947
- Riddick, John F. (1998). Who Was Who in British India, Covers 1599–1947.
- Robb, Peter (2002). A History of India (1st ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-69129-8.
- Robb, Peter (2011) [First published 2002]. A History of India (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-34549-2.
- ISBN 978-0-14-013836-8.
- Stein, Burton; Arnold, David (2010). A History of India. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6.
- Wolpert, Stanley (2008). A New History of India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533756-3.
Monographs and collections
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- Anderson, Clare (2007), The Indian Uprising of 1857–8: prisons, prisoners, and rebellion, Anthem Press, ISBN 978-1-84331-295-6, retrieved 5 November 2011
- ISBN 978-0-521-66360-1
- Chakrabarti, D.K. 2003. The Archaeology of European Expansion in India, Gujarat, c. 16th–18th Centuries (2003) Delhi: Aryan Books International
- Chaudhuri, Kirti N. The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company: 1660–1760 (Cambridge University Press, 1978)
- Bose, Sumit (1993), Peasant Labour and Colonial Capital: Rural Bengal since 1770 (New Cambridge History of India), Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press..
- Chandavarkar, Rajnarayan (1998), Imperial Power and Popular Politics: Class, Resistance and the State in India, 1850–1950, (Cambridge Studies in Indian History & Society). Cambridge and London: ISBN 978-0-521-59692-3.
- Das, Amita; Das, Aditya. Defending British India against Napoleon: The Foreign Policy of Governor-General Lord Minto, 1807–13 ( Rochester: Boydell Press, 2016)
- Erikson, Emily. Between Monopoly and Free Trade: The English East India Company, 1600–1757 (Princeton University Press, 2014)
- Farnie, D. A. (1979), The English Cotton Industry and the World Market, 1815–1896, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Pp. 414, ISBN 978-0-19-822478-5
- Gilmour, David. The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005).
- Guha, R. (1995), A Rule of Property for Bengal: An Essay on the Idea of the Permanent Settlement, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-59692-3.
- Hossain, Hameeda. The Company weavers of Bengal: the East India Company and the organization of textile production in Bengal, 1750–1813 (Oxford University Press, 1988)
- Marshall, P. J. (1987), Bengal: The British Bridgehead, Eastern India, 1740–1828, Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press
- Marshall, P. J. (2007), The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and America c. 1750–1783, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 400, ISBN 978-0-19-922666-5
- Metcalf, Thomas R. (1991), The Aftermath of Revolt: India, 1857–1870, Riverdale Co. Pub. Pp. 352, ISBN 978-81-85054-99-5
- Metcalf, Thomas R. (1997), Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, Pp. 256, ISBN 978-0-521-58937-6
- Misra, Maria (1999), Business, Race, and Politics in British India, c. 1850–1860, Delhi: Oxford University Press. Pp. 264, ISBN 978-0-19-820711-5
- Porter, Andrew, ed. (2001), Oxford History of the British Empire: Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 800, ISBN 978-0-19-924678-6
- Roy, Tirthankar (2011) [First published 2000], Economic History of India, 1857–1947 (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-807417-5, retrieved 19 February 2012
- Stokes, Eric (1986), Bayly, C.A. (ed.), The Peasant Armed: The Indian Revolt of 1857, Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 280, ISBN 978-0-19-821570-7.
- Stone, Ian (2002) [First published 1984], Canal Irrigation in British India: Perspectives on Technological Change in a Peasant Economy, Cambridge South Asian Studies, Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 392, ISBN 978-0-521-52663-0
- Tomlinson, B. R. (1993), The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970 (The New Cambridge History of India, III.3), Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press..
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Articles in journals or collections
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- Broadberry, Stephen; Gupta, Bishnupriya (2009), "Lancashire, India, and shifting competitive advantage in cotton textiles, 1700–1850: the neglected role of factor prices", Economic History Review, 62 (2): 279–305, S2CID 54975143
- Caldwell, John C. (December 1998), "Malthus and the Less Developed World: The Pivotal Role of India", Population and Development Review, 24 (4): 675–696, JSTOR 2808021
- Clingingsmith, David; Williamson, Jeffrey G. (2008), "Deindustrialization in 18th and 19th century India: Mughal decline, climate shocks and British industrial ascent", Explorations in Economic History, 45 (3): 209–234,
- Drayton, Richard (2001), "Science, Medicine, and the British Empire", in Winks, Robin (ed.), Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 264–276, ISBN 978-0-19-924680-9
- Frykenberg, Robert E. (2001), "India to 1858", in Winks, Robin (ed.), Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 194–213, ISBN 978-0-19-924680-9
- S2CID 144468476
- Heuman, Gad (2001), "Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Abolition", in Winks, Robin (ed.), Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 315–326, ISBN 978-0-19-924680-9
- Klein, Ira (1988), "Plague, Policy and Popular Unrest in British India", Modern Asian Studies, 22 (4): 723–755, S2CID 42173746
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- Kubicek, Robert (2001), "British Expansion, Empire, and Technological Change", in Porter, Andrew (ed.), Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 247–269, ISBN 978-0-19-924678-6
- Raj, Kapil (2000), "Colonial Encounters and the Forging of New Knowledge and National Identities: Great Britain and India, 1760–1850", Osiris, 2nd Series, 15 (Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise): 119–134, S2CID 143243650
- Ray, Rajat Kanta (July 1995), "Asian Capital in the Age of European Domination: The Rise of the Bazaar, 1800–1914", Modern Asian Studies, 29 (3): 449–554, S2CID 145744242
- Roy, Tirthankar (Summer 2002), "Economic History and Modern India: Redefining the Link", The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 16 (3): 109–130, JSTOR 3216953
- Tomlinson, B. R. (2001), "Economics and Empire: The Periphery and the Imperial Economy", in Porter, Andrew (ed.), Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 53–74, ISBN 978-0-19-924678-6
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Classic histories and gazetteers
- Allan, J., and Sir T. Wolseley Haig. The Cambridge shorter history of India (edited by Henry Dodwell. 1934) pp 399–589
- The Imperial Gazetteer of India (PDF). Vol. IV: The Indian Empire, Administrative. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1909.
- Majumdar, R. C.; Raychaudhuri, H. C.; Datta, Kalikinkar (1950), An Advanced History of India, London: Macmillan and Company Limited. 2nd edition. Pp. xiii, 1122, 7 maps, 5 coloured maps.
- OCLC 63943320
- Smith, Vincent A. (1921), India in the British Period: Being Part III of the Oxford History of India, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press. 2nd edition. Pp. xxiv, 316 (469–784)
- Thompson, Edward, and G. T. Garratt. Rise and fulfilment of British rule in India (Macmillan and Company, 1934.) 699pp; from 1599 to 1933
- Unknown (1829), Historical and Ecclesiastical Sketches of Bengal; From the Earliest Settlement, Until the Virtual Conquest of that Country by the English, in 1757, Calcutta
- Bruce, John (1810), Annals of the Honorable East-India Company: from their establishment by the charter of queen Elizabeth, 1600 to the Union of the London and the English East India Companies 1707–8, Vol-I, Black, Parry, and Kingsbury
- Bruce, John (1810), Annals of the Honorable East-India Company: from their establishment by the charter of queen Elizabeth, 1600 to the Union of the London and the English East India Companies 1707–8, Vol-II, London, Black, Parry, and Kingsbury
- Marshman, John Clark (1867), The History of India From the Earliest Period to the Close of Lord Dalhousie's Administration – 1867, Vol-I, Longmans, Green
Further reading
- Carson, Penelope (2012). The East India Company and Religion, 1698–1858. The Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-732-9.
- Damodaran, Vinita; Winterbottom, Anna; Lester, Alan, eds. (2015). The East India Company and the Natural World. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-349-49109-4.
- Erikson, Emily (2014). Between Monopoly and Free Trade: The English East India Company, 1600–1757. Princeton Analytical Sociology Series. Princeton University Press. LCCN 2014933831.
- Gardner, Leigh; Roy, Tirthankar (2020). The Economic History of Colonialism. Bristol University Press. ISBN 978-1-5292-0763-7.
- Nierstrasz, Chris (2015). Rivalry for Trade in Tea and Textiles: The English and Dutch East Indian Companies (1700–1800). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-349-57156-7.
- Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004) [First published 1986]. A History of India. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0.
- Ogborn, Miles (2007). Indian Ink: Script and Print in the Making of the English East India Company. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-62041-1.
- Roy, Tirthankar (2022). Monsoon Economies: India's History in a Changing Climate. History for a Sustainable Future series. The MIT Press. LCCN 2021033921.
- Roy, Tirthankar (2013). An Economic History of Early Modern India. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-69063-8.
- Roy, Tirthankar (2012). India in the World Economy: From Antiquity to the Present. New Approaches to Asian History series. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00910-3.
- Vaughn, James M. (2019). The Politics of Empire at the Accession of George III: The East India Company and the Crisis and Transformation of Britain's Imperial State. The Lewis Walpole Series in Eighteenth-Century Culture and History. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-20826-9.
- Winterbottom, Anna (2016). Hybrid Knowledge in the Early East India Company World. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-349-56318-0.
External links
- This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division.
- India from Congress
- Pakistan from Congress