Congress of Vienna

Coordinates: 48°12′31″N 16°21′50″E / 48.2085°N 16.3638°E / 48.2085; 16.3638
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For other uses, see Congress of Vienna (disambiguation).
"Vienna peace congress" redirects here. For the 2015 congress on Syria, see Vienna peace talks for Syria.

The national boundaries within Europe agreed upon by the Congress of Vienna
Frontispiece of the Acts of the Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna[a] of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte.[1] Participants were representatives of all European powers (other than the Ottoman Empire)[b] and other stakeholders. The Congress was chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and was held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815.

The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the

conservative leaders like Metternich also sought to restrain or eliminate republican, liberal, and revolutionary movements which, from their point of view, had upended the constitutional order of the European ancien régime
.

At the negotiation table, the position of France was weak in relation to that of

Napoleon Bonaparte, over the previous two decades, and his recent defeat. In the settlement the parties did reach, France had to give up all recent conquests, while the other three main powers made major territorial gains around the world. Prussia added territory from smaller states: Swedish Pomerania, most of the Kingdom of Saxony, and the western part of the former Duchy of Warsaw. Austria gained much of northern Italy. Russia added the central and eastern parts of the Duchy of Warsaw. All agreed upon ratifying the creation of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, which had been created just months before from formerly Austrian territory, and would serve as a buffer between the German Confederation
and France.

The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814, which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Remarkably, negotiations continued unaffected despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's return from exile and resumption of power in France during the Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress's agreement was signed nine days before Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815.

Some historians have criticised the outcomes of the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of national, democratic, and liberal movements,[3] and it has been seen as a reactionary settlement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. Others have praised the Congress for protecting Europe from large and widespread wars for almost a century.

The Congress format

Architect of the Congress System, Prince von Metternich, chancellor of the Austrian Empire from 1821 until the Revolution in 1848. Painting by Lawrence (1815)

The name "Congress of Vienna" was not meant to suggest a formal

Congress of Paris) that settled the Crimean War. The Congress of Vienna settlement gave birth to the Concert of Europe
, an international political doctrine that emphasized the maintaining of political boundaries, the balance of powers, and respecting spheres of influence and which guided foreign policy among the nations of Europe until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

To reach amiable consensus among the many different nations holding great interest in the settlement proceedings, informal, face-to-face deliberative sessions were held where opinions and proposed solutions could be inventoried. The policy work on which the Concert of Europe was built on came about through closed-doors dealing among the five

Talleyrand
. Lesser powers, like Spain, Sweden, and Portugal, were given few opportunities to advocate their interests and only occasionally partook in the meetings held between the great powers. However, because all representatives were gathered in one city it was relatively easy to communicate, to hear and spread news and gossip, and to present points of view for both powerful and less powerful nations. Also of great importance to the parties convened in Vienna were the opportunities presented at wine and dinner functions to establish formal relationships with one another and build-up diplomatic networks.

Preliminaries

The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by the more important Congress of Vienna. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades.[1]

Other partial settlements had already occurred at the

Sixth Coalition, and the Treaty of Kiel that covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia. The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress" should be held in Vienna and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war".[4] The opening was scheduled for July 1814.[5]

Participants

Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich
  •  France: Frédéric-Séraphin de La Tour du Pin Gouverne [fr]
  •  Russia: Count Karl Robert Nesselrode
  •  Portugal: Pedro de Sousa Holstein, 1st Count of Palmela
  •  Britain: Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh
  •  France: Emmerich Joseph, Duke of Dalberg
  •  Austria: Baron Johann von Wessenberg
  •  Russia: Prince Andrey Kirillovich Razumovsky
  •  Britain: Charles Stewart, 1st Baron Stewart
  •  Spain: Pedro Gómez Labrador, 1st Marquess of Labrador
  •  Britain: Richard Le Poer Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty
  • Nikolaus von Wacken [de] (Recorder)
  •  Austria: Friedrich von Gentz (Congress Secretary)
  •  Prussia: Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt
  •  Britain: William Cathcart, 1st Earl Cathcart
  •  Prussia: Prince Karl August von Hardenberg
  •  France: Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
  •  Russia: Count Gustav Ernst von Stackelberg

    • The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however, a large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls.[6]

    The four great powers and Bourbon France

    Four great powers had previously formed the core of the

    Bourbons during their restoration:[7]

    The lesser powers, parties to the Treaty of Paris, 1814

    These parties had not been part of the Chaumont agreement, but had joined the Treaty of Paris (1814):

    Other nations

    Other stakeholders, entertaining side program

    Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress.[31] In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding a copyright law and freedom of the press.[32] With them came a host of courtiers, secretaries, civil servants and ladies to enjoy the magnificent social life of the Austrian court. The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke of an attendee, it danced a lot but did not move forward.[33] On the other hand, the possibilities for informal gatherings created by this "side program" may have helped ensure the Congress's success.

    Diplomatic tactics

    Talleyrand (France)

    oil painting of Tallyrand, the French ambassador
    Talleyrand proved an able negotiator for the defeated French.
    Marquis of Labrador, Spanish Ambassador to the Congress of Vienna – Painting by Vicente López Portaña

    Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it,[34] once again abandoning his allies.

    The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on the protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquess of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on 30 September 1814.[35]

    Congress Secretary Friedrich von Gentz reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against the procedure we have adopted and soundly [be]rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget."[36] The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador.[citation needed]

    Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain.[37] Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately, is going to Vienna."[38] Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 afrancesados – Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to Joseph Bonaparte, nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain.[39]

    Polish-Saxon questions

    The most complex topic at the Congress was the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would like to become king of Poland.[40] Austria analysed, this could make Russia too powerful, a view which was supported by Britain. The result was a deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations signed a treaty on 3 January 1815, among only the three of them, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition.[41]

    When the Tsar heard of the treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic

    free city as a shared protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia. Furthermore, the tsar was forbidden from uniting his new realm with the parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s. Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony, much of which became part of the new Province of Saxony from 1816 (the now-Prussian parts of Lower Lusatia and some other areas instead became part of the Province of Brandenburg, with Prussian Upper Lusatia becoming part of the Province of Silesia by 1825); the remainder of Saxony returned to King Frederick Augustus I as his Kingdom of Saxony.[42]

    Subsidies

    It can be learned from the diaries of the master of affairs Von Gentz that diplomatic tactics possibly included bribing. He notes that at the Congress he received £22,000 through

    Louis XVIII, while Castlereagh
    gave him £600, accompanied by "les plus folles promesses" ("the wildest promises"); his diary is full of such entries.

    Final agreement

    In pink: territories left to France in 1814, but removed after the Treaty of Paris
    Italian states after the Congress of Vienna with Austrian-annexed territories shown in yellow

    The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (nine days before the Battle of Waterloo).[43] Its provisions included:

    Representatives of Austria, France, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Sweden-Norway, and Britain signed the Final Act. Spain did not sign, but ratified the outcome in 1817.[citation needed]

    Subsequently, Ferdinand IV, the Bourbon King of Sicily, regained control of the Kingdom of Naples after Joachim Murat, the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in the Hundred Days and started the 1815 Neapolitan War by attacking Austria.[citation needed]

    Other changes

    Alexander I of Russia considered himself a guarantor of European security

    The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795 and 1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris, were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and the northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Austria.[citation needed]

    Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the

    Duchy of Parma).[55]

    The

    Ferdinand IV to the throne.[56]

    William II, King of the Netherlands - painting by Jan Adam Kruseman 1840)

    A large

    Duchy of Lauenburg was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania. Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played a significant role in European wars for several hundred years: the Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently.[citation needed
    ]

    During the wars, Portugal had lost its town of Olivenza to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivenza decreed in Article CV of the General Treaty of the Final Act, which stated that "The Powers, recognizing the justice of the claims of ... Portugal and the Brazils, upon the town of Olivenza, and the other territories ceded to Spain by the Treaty of Badajoz of 1801". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted the Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivenza and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and, to the present day, this issue remains unresolved.[57]

    The United Kingdom received parts of the

    Ceylon and the Cape Colony as well as Malta and Heligoland. Under the Treaty of Paris (1814) Article VIII France ceded to Britain the islands of "Tobago and Saint Lucia, and of the Isle of France and its dependencies, especially Rodrigues and Les Seychelles",[58][59] and under the Treaty between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands (signed in Paris on 5 November 1815), as one of the treaties signed during the Peace of Paris (1815), Britain obtained a protectorate over the United States of the Ionian Islands.[60]

    Later criticism and praise

    Twelfth Night by George Cruikshank A contemporary caricature of the leading figures at the congress.

    The Congress of Vienna has been criticized by 19th century and more recent historians and politicians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent.[3] It was an integral part in what became known as the Conservative Order, in which democracy and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized.[3]

    In the 20th century, however, historians and politicians looking backward came to praise the Congress as well, because they saw it did prevent another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914) and a significant step in the transition to a new international order in which peace was largely maintained through diplomatic dialogue. Among these is

    balance of power in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945.[citation needed
    ]

    Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace.

    Parma, Piedmont–Sardinia, Tuscany, and the Papal States under the control of different powers.[64] Poland remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created Kingdom of Poland, remaining under Russian control.[citation needed
    ]

    The arrangements made by the Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years.[65] Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent some 30 years later.[citation needed]

    Some authors have suggested that the Congress of Vienna may provide a model for settling multiple interlocking conflicts in Eastern Europe that arose after the break-up of the Soviet Union.[66][67]

    See also

    Notes

    1. ^ French: Congrès de Vienne, ‹See Tfd›German: Wiener Kongress
    2. ^ Although the Ottoman Empire was officially invited by Robert Liston and Klemens von Metternich to actively participate in the Congress on topics such as the Russo–Turkish conflicts, Sultan Mahmud II did not send a delegation. Thus, the country was the only power in Europe to abstain from the Congress.[2]

    References

    1. ^
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    2. doi:10.1093/ehr/ceab356
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    3. ^
      ISBN 0-313-26257-8
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    4. ^ Treaty of Paris (1814) Article XXXII
    5. ^ King 2008, p. 334.
    6. ISSN 0010-8367
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    7. ^ Nicolson 1946, pp. 118–133.
    8. ^ Kissinger 1957, pp. 7–28.
    9. ^ Kissinger 1957, pp. 9–36.
    10. ^ Nicolson 1946, p. 158.
    11. JSTOR 1404942
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    12. JSTOR 3633726
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    13. ISBN 0-399-11022-4
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    14. ^ Treaty between Great Britain and Portugal, January 22, 1815. Vol. 5 George IV. London: His Majesty's Statute and Law Printers. 1824. p. 650. Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2021 – via Google Books.
    15. ^ Freksa, Frederick (1919). A peace congress of intrigue. Translated by Hansen, Harry. New York: The Century Co. p. 116. the congress of vienna.
    16. ^ Bernard, p. 381.
    17. ^ Zamoyski 2007, p. 297, "[...] the Danish plenipotentiary Count Rosenkrantz.".
    18. ^ Couvée, D.H.; Pikkemaat, G. (1963). 1813–15, ons koninkrijk geboren. Alphen aan den Rijn: N. Samsom nv. pp. 123–124.
    19. ^ "[Castlereagh, during his stay in The Hague, in January 1813] induced the Dutch to leave their interests entirely in British hands" (Nicolson 1946, p. 65)
    20. ^ Nicolson, Harold (1946). The Congress of Vienna; a Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822. Constable & Company. p. 197. Baron von Gagern – one of the two plenipotentiaries for the Netherlands.
    21. ^ Nicolson 1946, p. 195.
    22. ISBN 978-88-902817-9-2
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    23. ^ Zamoyski 2007, p. 257, "The Pope's envoy to Vienna, Cardinal Consalvi [...].".
    24. ISBN 978-88-343-1422-7. Archived
      from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
    25. ^ Cassinis, Giovanni Battista (1862). Parere per l'ordine di San Giovanni di Gerusalemme intorno all'intelligenza ed agli effetti dei decreti del parlamento siciliano del 5 agosto 1848 e del dittatore Garibaldi del 17 e 19 maggio 1860 (in Italian). tipogr. V. Vercellino. Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
    26. Firenze University Press. Archived
      from the original on 7 January 2022. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
    27. ^ Bernard, p. 409.
    28. ^ "Ruffo, Fabrizio, principe di Castelcicala in 'Dizionario Biografico'". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Archived from the original on 14 November 2021. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
    29. ^ "Maresca, Nicola in 'Dizionario Biografico'". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Archived from the original on 14 November 2021. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
    30. ^ Fritz Apian-Bennewitz: Leopold von Plessen und die Verfassungspolitik der deutschen Kleinstaaten auf dem Wiener Kongress 1814/15. Eutin: Ivens 1933; Hochschulschrift: Rostock, Univ., Diss., 1933
    31. ^ King 2008, p. 2.
    32. ^ Zamoyski 2007, pp. 258, 295.
    33. ^ According to King 2008, p. [page needed], it was Prince de Ligne, an attendee at the conference, who wryly quipped, ""Le congrès danse beaucoup, mais il ne marche pas."
    34. ISBN 1-113-44924-1
    35. ^ "The Congress of Vienna | History of Western Civilization II". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
    36. Harper & Row
      , Publishers. p. 120.
    37. ^ Wenceslao Ramírez de Villa-Urrutia, Marqués de Villa-Urrutia, España en el Congreso de Viena según la correspondencia de D. Pedro Gómez Labrador, Marqués de Labrador. Segunda Edición Corregida y Aumentada (Madrid: Francisco Beltrán, 1928), 13.
    38. ^ Antonio Rodríguez-Moñino (ed.), Cartas Políticas (Badajoz: Imprenta Provincial, 1959), 14 (Letter IV, 10 July 1814). Labrador's letters are full of such pungent remarks, and include his opinions on bad diplomats, the state of the postal system, the weather, and his non-existent salary and coach and accompanying livery for the Congress.
    39. Nicolas Soult, who left Spain with entire collections, which disappeared to unknown, separate locations around the world. According to Juan Antonio Gaya Nuño
      , at least "[the paintings] have come to spread the prestige of Spanish art around the whole word."
    40. doi:10.1080/07075332.1985.9640368
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    41. ISBN 0-8021-3744-X
    42. ^ Webster 1913, pp. 49–101.
    43. ^ An Italian version of the Final Act was published in 1859 and is now accessible in Books.Google (albeit with some scanning imperfections): Atto finale del Congresso di Vienna fra le cinque grandi potenze, Austria, Francia, Inghilterra, Prussia e Russia del 9 giugno 1815 (in Italian). Milan: Sanvito. 1859.
    44. ^ Couvée, D.H.; G. Pikkemaat (1963). 1813–15, ons koninkrijk geboren. Alphen aan den Rijn: N. Samsom nv. pp. 127–130.
    45. ^ grosstuchen.de Prussian payment for Swedish Pomerania
    46. ^ Bernard, p. 415.
    47. ^ a b Bernard, p. 417.
    48. ^ Atto Finale 1859, p. 59, Art. 98.
    49. ^ With an agreement dated 20 December 1815, however, the Duchess ceded the former Lunigiana fiefs to her son, the Duke of Modena.
    50. ^ Bernard, p. 411.
    51. ^ Atto Finale 1859, p. 61, Art. 101.
    52. ^ Atto Finale 1859, p. 77, Articles 3 and 4 of the Treaty concluded in Paris on 10 June 1817 about the reversion of the Duchies of Parma, Piacenza e Guastalla.
    53. ^ Atto Finale 1859, pp. 67–68, Art. 118, paragraph n. 15.
    54. ^ Atto Finale 1859, pp. 64 ff, Articles 108 et seq..
    55. ISBN 0-395-65237-5
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    56. ^ Stearns & Langer 2001, p. 440.
    57. ^ Hammond 1966, p. [page needed].
    58. ^ Treaty of Paris (1814) Article VIII
    59. ^ "Seychelles – History". Encyclopedia Britannica. 27 September 2016. Archived from the original on 8 June 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
    60. ISBN 0-8047-0296-9
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    61. ^ Jarrett, Mark (2013). The Congress of Vienna and Its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon. pp. 353, xiv, 187.
    62. ^ Schroeder 1992, pp. 683–706.
    63. ISBN 0-5214-4229-X
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    64. ISBN 978-0-5544-1246-7
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    65. ISBN 0-7641-5811-2
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    66. ^ Gutbrod, Hans (25 November 2020). "When Great-Power Politics Isn't Great Enough". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
    67. ^ Marks, Ramon (4 June 2022). "Congress of Vienna Redux: How the OSCE Can Foster Peace in Ukraine". National Interest. Retrieved 9 November 2022.

    Works cited

    Further reading

    Primary sources

    • British diplomacy, 1813–1815: Select Documents Dealing with the Reconstruction of Europe. 1921.
    • Spiel, Hilde (1968). The Congress of Vienna; an Eyewitness Account. Philadelphia:
      Chilton Book Co.
    • Walker, Mack, ed. (1968). Metternich's Europe.
      ISBN 978-0-8027-2014-6
      .
    • Duke of Wellington, ed. (1862). Supplementary despatches and memoranda of the Duke of Wellington, K. G. Vol. 9: South of France, Embassy to Paris and Congress of Vienna – April 1814 to March 1815. London: John Murray. Some letters of the Prince Regent, the Emperor Alexander, Louis XVIII., Murat King of Naples, the Earl of Liverpool, Viscount Castlereagh, Earl Bathurst, and other distinguished persons, are given for the elucidation of diplomatic and public transactions in which the Duke of Wellington was engaged [as British Plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna].

    Other languages

    • Ghervas, Stella (2008). Réinventer la tradition. Alexandre Stourdza et l'Europe de la Sainte-Alliance. Paris: Honoré Champion.
      ISBN 978-2-7453-1669-1
      .
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