Conquest of Wales by Edward I
The conquest of Wales by Edward I took place between 1277 and 1283. It is sometimes referred to as the Edwardian conquest of Wales,
By the 13th century, Wales was divided between native Welsh principalities and the territories of the Anglo-Norman Marcher lords. The leading principality was Gwynedd, whose princes had gained control of the greater part of the country, making the other remaining Welsh princes their vassals, and had taken the title Prince of Wales. Although English monarchs had made several attempts to seize control of the native Welsh territories, it was not until Edward's war of conquest against Llywelyn, the last native prince of Wales, that this was achieved on a lasting basis.
Most of the conquered territory was retained as a royal fief, and these lands later became, by custom, the territorial endowment of the heir to the English throne with the title Prince of Wales. The remainder would be granted to Edward's supporters as new Marcher lordships. Although the territories would not be effectively incorporated into the
Background: Wales in the High Middle Ages
Following a series of invasions beginning shortly after their
The principality of Gwynedd was the dominant power in Wales in the first half of the 13th century, with Powys and Deheubarth becoming
Conquest
Immediate causes of war
Henry III died in 1272 and was succeeded by his son, Edward I. Whereas Henry's ineffectiveness had led to the collapse of royal authority in England during his reign,[11] Edward was a vigorous and forceful ruler and an able military leader.[12]
In 1274, tension between Llywelyn and Edward increased when Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of Powys and Llywelyn's younger brother Dafydd ap Gruffydd defected to the English and sought Edward's protection.[13] The continuing conflict with the Marcher Lords, particularly over Roger Mortimer's new castle at Cefnllys, and Edward's harbouring of defectors led Llewelyn to refuse Edward's demand to come to Chester in 1275 to do homage to him, as required by the Treaty of Montgomery.[14] For Edward, a further provocation came from Llywelyn's planned marriage to Eleanor, daughter of Simon de Montfort, the leader of a rebellion against the crown during the reign of Edward's father.[15] In November 1276, Edward declared war on Llywelyn.[16] However, his objective was to put down a recalcitrant vassal rather than to begin a war of conquest.[17]
Invasion of 1277
Early in 1277, before the main royal army had been mustered, Edward deployed, in south and mid-Wales, a mixture of forces comprising paid troops, some of the marcher lords' retainers and knights of the royal household. They met with considerable success as many of the native Welsh rulers, resentful of Llywelyn's overlordship, surrendered and joined the English.
Llywelyn soon realised his position was hopeless and quickly surrendered. The campaign never came to a major battle. However, Edward decided to negotiate a settlement rather than attempt total conquest. It may be that he was running short of men and supplies by November 1277 and, in any case, complete conquest of Llywelyn's territories had not been his objective.[18]
Treaty of Aberconwy
By the Treaty of Aberconwy in November 1277, Llywelyn was left only with the western part of Gwynedd, though he was allowed to retain the title of Prince of Wales.[19] Eastern Gwynedd was split between Edward and Llywelyn's brother Dafydd, with the remainder of the lands that had been tributary to him becoming effectively Edward's.[19]
As a result of both territorial expropriation and the submission of the ruling families, Deheubarth, Powys and mid-Wales became a mixture of directly controlled royal land and pliant English protectorates.[20] Edward's victory was comprehensive and it represented a major redistribution of power and territory in Wales in Edward's favour.[21] Edward now enjoyed a degree of direct control in the native Welsh areas which no previous English king had achieved.[20]
Campaign of 1282–83
War broke out again in 1282, as a result of a rebellion by Llywelyn's brother Dafydd, who was discontented with the reward he had received from Edward in 1277.[22] Dafydd launched a series of attacks co-ordinated with the Welsh rulers in Deheubarth and North Powys, who had been Llywelyn's vassals until 1277 and were now Edward's vassals.[23] Llywelyn and the other Welsh leaders, including those in the south, joined in and it soon assumed a very different character from the 1277 campaign. It became a national struggle enjoying wide support among the Welsh, who were provoked particularly by Edward's attempts to impose English law on the Welsh.[24] Edward, however, soon began to see it as a war of conquest rather than just a punitive expedition to put down a rebellion.[25]
The English launched a three-pronged attack, with Edward leading his army into North Wales along much the same route as in 1277,
However, the war turned in Edward's favour when Llywelyn unexpectedly marched out of North Wales towards
Aftermath
Territorial settlement
Edward divided the territory of the Welsh principalities between himself (that is, retained under direct royal control) and his supporters through feudal grants, which in practice became new Marcher lordships.
Lands retained under direct royal control were organised under the Statute of Rhuddlan of 1284, which declared that they were "annexed and united" to the English crown,[33] although they did not become part of the Kingdom of England. They were the King's personal fief and in 1301, they were bestowed on Edward's son, Edward of Caernarfon (the future Edward II), with the title "Prince of Wales" and thereafter the lands and title became the customary endowment of the heir to the throne.[4]
The Statute of Rhuddlan divided the territory under royal control into six
The rest of Wales continued to be constituted as the
Colonisation and castle building
From 1277, and particularly after 1283, Edward embarked on a policy of English colonisation and settlement of Wales, creating new towns like Flint, Aberystwyth and Rhuddlan.[39] Outside of the towns, Welsh peasants were evicted from key areas and their land resettled by English peasants: for example, in the Lordship of Denbigh 10,000 acres were occupied by English settlers by 1334.[40]
Edward's main concern following his victory was to ensure the military security of his new territories and the stone castle was to be the primary means for achieving this.[21] Under the supervision of James of Saint George, Edward's master-builder, a series of imposing castles was built, using a distinctive design and the most advanced defensive features of the day, to form a "ring of stone" around north Wales.[41] Among the major buildings were the castles of Beaumaris, Caernarfon, Conwy and Harlech.[42]
For generations, sheriffs in Wales in charge of "administering royal law" were mostly English.[43] Some Welsh laws were kept, but the remaining Welsh legal code could be superseded by an English noble official or the use of English law.[43]
Further rebellions
Rebellions continued to occur in Wales sporadically. These included revolts in 1287–88, and
Consequences for England
There was an unforeseen constitutional impact for England.[48] The financial cost of the conquest was heavy. Including the construction of the new castles, Edward spent around £173,000 to achieve it.[49] (In comparison, Edward's annual revenue at this time averaged around £40,000.[50]) Additionally, the exchequer had to bear the cost of the ongoing military presence in Wales, including maintenance of the castles. The king's financial need contributed to the extension of the role and membership of the English Parliament as taxes were needed to be raised in consequence.[48]
Notes
- R. R. Davies, the leading modern scholar of the period, in his works including The Age of Conquest: Wales, 1063–1415, published 2000.
- ISBN 978-0-19-955037-1.
References
- ^ a b Carpenter 2003, pp. 110–116
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-31153-3.
- ^ Moore 2005, p. 129
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-955037-1.
- ^ Davies 2000, p. 525
- ^ Carpenter 2003, pp. 363–364
- ^ ISBN 978-0-313-29124-1.
- ^ Carpenter 2003, p. 386
- ^ Morris 2008, p. 132
- ^ Davies 2000, pp. 322–3
- ISBN 978-1-85285-137-8.
- ^ Prestwich 1997, pp. 567, 558–565
- ^ Prestwich 1997, p. 175
- ^ Prestwich 1997, pp. 174–5
- ^ Davies 2000, p. 327
- ^ Powicke 1962, p. 409
- ^ a b Prestwich 2007, pp. 150–151
- ^ a b c Prestwich 2007, p. 151
- ^ a b Powicke 1962, p. 413
- ^ a b Davies 2000, p. 337
- ^ a b Davies 2000, p. 338
- ^ Davies 2000, p. 348
- ^ Carpenter 2003, p. 506
- ISBN 978-0-7083-0890-5.
- ^ Prestwich 1997, p. 188
- ^ a b c Prestwich 2007, p. 154
- ^ Morris 2008, p. 180
- ^ Prestwich 1997, pp. 191–2
- ^ a b c d Prestwich 2007, p. 155
- ^ Davies 2000, p. 353
- ^ a b Carpenter 2003, p. 510
- ^ a b c Prestwich 1997, pp. 204–205
- ^ Davies 2000, p. 461
- ^ Davies 2000, pp. 364–365
- ^ Hilaire Barnett (2004). Constitutional and Administrative Law (5th edition). Cavendish Publishing. p. 59.
- ^ Davies 2000, p. 368
- ^ Davies 2000, pp. 376–379
- ISBN 978-1-85760-042-1
- ^ Prestwich 1997, p. 216
- ^ Diane M. Korngiebel (2003). "Forty acres and a mule: the mechanics of English settlement in North-east Wales after the Edwardian conquest". Haskins Society Journal. 14: 99–100.
- ISBN 978-0-9545575-2-2
- ^ Prestwich 1997, p. 160
- ^ ISBN 978-0-563-48714-2.
- .
- ^ Moore 2005, p. 159
- ^ Moore 2005, pp. 164–166
- ^ Moore 2005, pp. 169–185
- ^ a b Ian Bremner. "Wales: English Conquest of Wales c. 1200 – 1415". BBC History online. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-00-745749-6.
- ISBN 978-1-107-01494-7.
Bibliography
- ISBN 978-0-19-522000-1.
- ISBN 978-0-19-820878-5.
- Moore, David (2005). The Welsh wars of independence: c. 410 – c. 1415 (new ed.). Tempus. ISBN 978-0-7524-3321-9.
- ISBN 978-0-09-179684-6.
- Morris, John E. (1901). The Welsh Wars of Edward I. a Contribution to Mediaeval Military History, Based on Original Documents. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. OCLC 562375464.
- ISBN 978-0-19-821708-4.
- ISBN 978-0-300-07209-9.
- ISBN 978-0-19-822844-8.