Wars of Alexander the Great
Wars of Alexander the Great | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Naples National Archaeological Museum, Italy) | |||||||
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
In Balkans: In India: | |||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
The wars of Alexander the Great (Greek: Πόλεμοι του Μεγάλου Αλεξάνδρου) were a series of conquests that were carried out by Alexander III of Macedon from 336 BC to 323 BC. They began with battles against the Achaemenid Persian Empire, then under the rule of Darius III of Persia. After Alexander's chain of victories against Achaemenid Persia, he began a campaign against local chieftains and warlords that stretched from Greece to as far as the region of Punjab in South Asia. At the time of his death, he ruled over most regions of Greece and the conquered Achaemenid Empire (including much of Persian Egypt); he did not, however, manage to conquer the Indian subcontinent in its entirety according to his initial plan. Despite his military accomplishments, Alexander did not provide any stable alternative to the rule of the Achaemenid Empire,[1] and his untimely death threw the vast territories he conquered into a series of civil wars, commonly known as the Wars of the Diadochi.
Alexander assumed kingship over ancient Macedonia following the assassination of his father, Philip II of Macedon (r. 359–336 BC). During his two decades on the throne, Philip II had unified[2] the poleis (Greek city-states) of mainland Greece (with Macedonian hegemony) under the League of Corinth.[3] Alexander proceeded to solidify Macedonian rule by quashing a rebellion that took place in the southern Greek city-states, and also staged a short but bloody excursion against the city-states to the north. He then proceeded east in order to carry out his plans to conquer the Achaemenid Empire. His campaign of conquests from Greece spanned across Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Afghanistan, and India. He extended the boundaries of his Macedonian Empire as far east as the city of Taxila in modern-day Pakistan.
Prior to his death, Alexander had also made plans for a Macedonian military and mercantile expansion into the Arabian Peninsula, after which he planned to turn his armies to Carthage, Rome, and the Iberian Peninsula in the west. However, the Diadochi (his political rivals) abandoned these plans after he died; instead, within a few years of Alexander's death, the Diadochi began a series of military campaigns against each other and divided the territories of the Macedonian Empire among themselves,[4] triggering 40 years of warfare during the Hellenistic period.
Historical campaigns
Background
In 336,
News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including
Alexander stopped at
Balkan campaign
Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders and, in the spring of 335 BC, he advanced into Thrace to deal with the revolt, which was led by the
While he was triumphantly campaigning north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once more. Alexander reacted immediately, but, while the other cities once again hesitated, Thebes decided to resist with the utmost vigor. This resistance was useless, however, as the city was razed to the ground amid great bloodshed and its territory divided between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens into submission, leaving all of Greece at least outwardly at peace with Alexander.[12]
Persia
Asia Minor
In 334 BC, Alexander crossed the
In these early months, Darius still refused to take Alexander seriously or mount a serious challenge to Alexander's movements. Memnon of Rhodes, the Greek mercenary who aligned himself with the Persians, advocated for a scorched earth strategy. He wanted the Persians to destroy the land in front of Alexander, which he hoped would force Alexander's army to starve, and then to turn back. The satraps in Anatolia rejected this advice, considering it their duty to defend their land.[14] Eventually, with Alexander advancing deeper into Persian territory, Darius ordered all five satraps of the Anatolian provinces to pool their military resources together and confront Alexander. This army was guided by Memnon, while absolute command was split among the five satraps.[15]
Battle of the Granicus River
The
Alexander's second-in-command, Parmenion, suggested crossing the river upstream and attacking at dawn the next day, but Alexander attacked immediately. He ordered a small group of cavalry and light infantry to attack from the Macedonian right to draw the Persians off the bank and into the river. Seeing that he had broken the Persian line, Alexander led his horse companions in oblique order further to the right in order to outflank the Persians and buy time for his infantry to cross the river.[16] Several high-ranking Persian nobles were killed by Alexander himself or his bodyguards, although Alexander was stunned by an axe-blow from a Persian nobleman named Spithridates. Before the noble could deal a death-blow, however, he was killed by Cleitus the Black. The Macedonian cavalry opened a hole in the Persian line as the Macedonian infantry advanced, forcing the enemy back and eventually breaking their center. The Persian cavalry turned and fled the battlefield, and the Greek mercenary infantry they held in reserve were encircled by the Macedonians and slaughtered; only around two-thousand of which survived, and were sent back to Macedonia for labor.[17]
Alexander consolidates support in Asia Minor
After the battle, Alexander buried the dead Greeks and Persians and sent the captured Greek mercenaries back to Greece to work in the mines as an abject lesson for any Greek who decided to fight for the Persians. He sent some of the spoils back to Greece, including three hundred
Antipater, whom Alexander had left in charge of Macedon in his absence, had been given a free hand to install dictators and tyrants wherever he saw fit in order to minimize the risk of a rebellion. As he moved deeper into Persia, however, the threat of trouble seemed to grow. Many of these towns had been ruled for generations by heavy handed tyrants, so in these Persian towns, he did the opposite of what he did in Greece. Wanting to appear to be a liberator, he freed the population and allowed self-government. As he continued marching into Persia, he saw that his victory at Granicus had been lost on no one. Town after town seemed to surrender to him. The satrap at Sardis, as well as his garrison, was among the first of many satraps to capitulate.[citation needed]
As these satraps gave up, Alexander appointed new ones to replace them, and claimed to distrust the accumulation of absolute power into anyone's hands. There appeared to be little change from the old system. Alexander, however, appointed independent boards to collect tribute and taxes from the satrapies, which appeared to do nothing more than improve the efficiency of government. The true effect, however, was to separate the civil from the financial function of these satrapies, thus ensuring that these governments, while technically independent of him, never truly were. Otherwise, he allowed the inhabitants of these towns to continue as they always had, and made no attempt to impose Greek customs on them. Meanwhile, ambassadors from other Greek cities in Asia Minor came to Alexander, offering submission if he allowed their 'democracies' to continue. Alexander granted their wish, and allowed them to stop paying taxes to Persia, but only if they joined the League of Corinth. By doing so, they promised to provide monetary support to Alexander.[citation needed]
Siege of Halicarnassus
The
Orontobates and Memnon of Rhodes entrenched themselves in Halicarnassus. Alexander had sent spies to meet with dissidents inside the city, who had promised to open the gates and allow Alexander to enter. When his spies arrived, however, the dissidents were nowhere to be found. A small battle resulted, and Alexander's army managed to break through the city walls. Memnon, however, now deployed his catapults, and Alexander's army fell back. Memnon then deployed his infantry, and shortly before Alexander would have received his first (and only) defeat, his infantry managed to break through the city walls, surprising the Persian forces and killing Orontobates. Memnon, realizing the city was lost, set fire to it and withdrew with his army. A strong wind caused the fire to destroy much of the city. Alexander then committed the government of Caria to Ada; and she, in turn, formally adopted Alexander as her son, ensuring that the rule of Caria passed unconditionally to him upon her eventual death.[citation needed]
Syria
Shortly after the battle, Memnon died. His replacement was a Persian who had spent time in Macedonia called Pharnabazus. He disrupted Alexander's supply routes by taking Aegean islands near the Hellespont and by fomenting rebellion in southern Greece. Meanwhile, Darius took the Persian army to intercept Alexander.
Alexander marched his army east through
After reaching Mount Taurus, Alexander's army found a stream that flowed from the mountain with water that was ice cold. Not thinking, Alexander jumped into the stream, suffered a cramp and then a convulsion, and was pulled out nearly dead. He quickly developed pneumonia, but none of his physicians would treat him, because they feared that, if he died, they would be held responsible. One physician named Philip, who had treated Alexander since he was a child, agreed to treat him. Although he soon fell into a coma, he eventually recovered.[citation needed]
Battle of Issus
Initially, Alexander chose what was apparently unfavorable ground. This surprised Darius who mistakenly elected to hold the wrong position while Alexander instructed his infantry to take up a defensive posture. Alexander personally led the more elite Greek Companion cavalry against the Persian left up against the hills, and cut up the enemy on the less encumbering terrain, thereby generating a quick rout. After achieving a breakthrough, Alexander demonstrated he could do the difficult thing and held the cavalry in check after it broke the Persian right. Alexander then mounted his beloved horse Bucephalus, took his place at the head of his Companion cavalry, and led a direct assault against Darius. The horses that were pulling Darius' chariot were injured, and began tossing at the yoke. Darius, about to fall off his chariot, instead jumped off. He threw his royal diadem away, mounted a horse, and fled the scene. The Persian troops, realizing they had lost, either surrendered or fled with their hapless king. The Macedonian cavalry pursued the fleeing Persians for as long as there was light. As with most ancient battles, significant carnage occurred after the battle as pursuing Macedonians slaughtered their crowded, disorganized foe.[citation needed]
The invading troops led by Alexander were outnumbered more than 2:1, yet they defeated the army personally led by
Siege of Tyre
The Siege of Tyre occurred in 332 BC when Alexander set out to conquer Tyre, a strategic coastal base. Tyre was the site of the only remaining Persian port that did not capitulate to Alexander. Even by this point in the war, the Persian navy still posed a major threat to Alexander. Tyre, the largest and most important city-state of Phoenicia, was located both on the Mediterranean coast as well as a nearby Island with two natural harbors on the landward side. At the time of the siege, the city held approximately 40,000 people, though the women and children were evacuated to Carthage, an ancient Phoenician colony.[citation needed]
Alexander sent an envoy to Tyre, proposing a peace treaty, and asked to visit their city and offer sacrifices to their God Melqart. The Tyrians politely told Alexander that their town was neutral in the war, and that allowing him to offer sacrifices to Melqart would be tantamount to recognizing him as their king. Alexander considered building a causeway that would allow his army to take the town by force. His engineers did not believe it would be possible to build such a massive structure, and so Alexander sent peace envoys once more to propose an alliance. The Tyrians believed this to be a sign of weakness, and so they killed the envoys and threw their bodies over the city wall. The dissent against Alexander's plans to take the city by force disappeared, and his engineers began to design the structure. Alexander began with an engineering feat that shows the true extent of his brilliance; as he could not attack the city from sea, he built a kilometer-long causeway stretching out to the island on a natural land bridge no more than two meters deep.[20] Alexander then constructed two towers 150 feet high and moved them to the end of the causeway. The Tyrians, however, quickly devised a counterattack. They used an old horse transport ship, filling it with dried branches, pitch, sulfur, and various other combustibles. They then lit it on fire, creating what we might call a primitive form of napalm, and ran it up onto the causeway. The fire spread quickly, engulfing both towers and other siege equipment that had been brought up.[citation needed]
This convinced Alexander that he would be unable to take Tyre without a navy. Fate would soon provide him with one. Presently, the Persian navy returned to find their home cities under Alexander's control. Since their allegiance was to their city, they were therefore Alexander's. He now had eighty ships. This coincided with the arrival of another hundred and twenty from Cyprus, which had heard of his victories and wished to join him. Alexander then sailed on Tyre and quickly blockaded both ports with his superior numbers. He had several of the slower galleys, and a few barges, refit with battering rams, the only known case of battering rams being used on ships. Alexander started testing the wall at various points with his rams, until he made a small breach in the south end of the island. He then coordinated an attack across the breach with a bombardment from all sides by his navy. Once his troops forced their way into the city, they easily overtook the garrison, and quickly captured the city. Those citizens that took shelter in the temple of Heracles were pardoned by Alexander. It is said that Alexander was so enraged at the Tyrians' defense and the loss of his men that he destroyed half the city. Alexander granted pardon to the king and his family, whilst 30,000 residents and foreigners taken were sold into slavery. There was a family, though, that Alexander gave a very high position in his government, but the only contact he ever had with them was when he spent the night with the wife of the household.[citation needed]
Egypt
Siege of Gaza
The stronghold at
Batis, the commander of the fortress of Gaza, refused to surrender to Alexander. Though a eunuch, Batis was physically imposing and ruthless. After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold was finally taken by force,[22] but not before Alexander received a serious shoulder wound. When Gaza was taken, the male population was put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery. According to the Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus, Batis was killed by Alexander in imitation of Achilles' treatment of the fallen Hector. A rope was forced through Batis's ankles, probably between the ankle bone and the Achilles tendon, and Batis was dragged alive by chariot beneath the walls of the city. Alexander, who admired courage in his enemies and might have been inclined to show mercy to the brave Persian general, was infuriated at Batis's refusal to kneel and by the enemy commander's haughty silence and contemptuous manner.
With Gaza taken, Alexander marched into Egypt. His entry was described as "closer to a triumphant procession than an invasion."[7] They welcomed Alexander as their king, placed him on the throne of the Pharaohs,[7] giving him the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, and named him the incarnation of Ra and Osiris. He set in motion plans to build Alexandria, and, though future tax revenues would be channeled to him, he left Egypt under the management of Egyptians, which helped to win him their support. [citation needed]
Mesopotamia
Battle of Gaugamela
The
The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his eastern satrapies. Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry as was the tradition among Persian kings. The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side of the army falling under the direct command of Alexander, and the left to Parmenion. Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in phalanx formation towards the center of the enemy line. Darius now launched his chariots, which were intercepted by the Agrianians, and quickly rendered useless. Alexander, while leading the charge, formed his units into a giant wedge, which quickly smashed right into the weakened Persian center. Darius' charioteer was killed by a spear, and chaos rang out as everyone (incorrectly) thought it was Darius who had been killed. The Persian line then collapsed, and Darius fled. Darius escaped with a small core of his forces remaining intact, although the Bactrian cavalry and Bessus soon caught up with him. The remaining Persian resistance was quickly put down. In all, the Battle of Gaugamela was a disastrous defeat for the Persians, and possibly one of Alexander's finest victories.[citation needed]
Persis
After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his own bodyguard chased after Darius in hopes of catching up. Substantial amounts of loot were gained following the battle, with 4,000 talents captured, as well as the King's personal chariot and bow. Darius planned to head further east, and raise another army to face Alexander while he and the Macedonians headed to one of the Persian capitals, Babylon, and then to another, Susa. There, Alexander found wealth that even he had never imagined possible. He paid his troops, and sent a sum of money six times the annual income of Athens to Greece, in order to put down a Spartan rebellion. Darius, meanwhile, dispatched letters to his eastern satrapies asking them to remain loyal. The satrapies, however, had other intentions, and quickly capitulated to Alexander.[citation needed]
Bessus fatally stabbed Darius, before fleeing eastwards. Darius was found by one of Alexander's scouts, moaning in pain. Darius, dying and chained to a baggage train being pulled by an ox, was lying next to a lone dog and his royal robes were covered in blood. He asked for water, and then, clutching the Macedonian soldier's hand, said that he was thankful that he would not die utterly alone and abandoned. Alexander, who may have felt genuinely saddened at Darius' death, buried Darius next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a full military funeral. Alexander claimed that, while dying, Darius had named Alexander as his successor to the Achaemenid throne and had asked Alexander to avenge his death, a striking irony since it was Alexander who had pursued him to his death. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is considered to have fallen with the death of Darius.[citation needed]
Alexander, viewing himself as the legitimate Achaemenid successor to Darius, viewed Bessus as a usurper to the Achaemenid throne, and eventually found and executed this 'usurper'. The majority of the existing satraps were to give their loyalty to Alexander, and be allowed to keep their positions. Alexander's troops now thought the war was over. Alexander was unsure how to deal with this, so he decided to scare them into submission. He gave a speech, arguing that their conquests were not secure, that the Persians did not want the Greeks to remain in their country, and that only the strength of Macedon could secure the country. The speech worked, and Alexander's troops agreed to remain with him. Alexander, now the Persian "King of Kings", adopted Persian dress and mannerisms, which, in time, the Greeks began to view as decadent and autocratic. They began to fear that Alexander, the king they had hero-worshiped, was turning into an eastern despot, although a young eunuch was eventually introduced to Alexander, and helped to keep his decadence in check.[citation needed]
Battle of the Persian Gate
In the winter of 330 BC, at the
Believing that, after his victory over the Uxians, he would not encounter any more enemy forces during his march, Alexander neglected to send scouts ahead of his vanguard, and thus walked into
Ariobarzanes held the pass for a month,[29] but Alexander succeeded in encircling the Persian army and broke through the Persian defenses. The defeat of Ariobarzanes's forces at the Persian Gate removed the last military obstacle between Alexander and Persepolis. Upon his arrival at the city of Persepolis, Alexander appointed a general named Phrasaortes as successor of Ariobarzanes. Four months later, Alexander allowed the troops to loot Persepolis. A fire broke out and spread to the rest of the city. It is not clear if it had been a drunken accident, or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Greco-Persian War.[30]
Siege of the Sogdian Rock
Bactria
In 329 BC, Alexander launched the Siege of
Indian campaign
After the death of
In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans; the
After gaining control of the former Achaemenid
East of Porus' kingdom, near the
As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having done all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand fighting elephants.[38]
Alexander spoke to his army and tried to persuade them to march further into India but
Return from India
Alexander now sent much of his army to
Battle record
Outcome | Date | War | Action | Opponent/s | Type | Country (present day) |
Rank |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Victory | 2 August 338 BC | Philip II's submission of Greece | Battle of Chaeronea | Athenians and other Greek cities
|
Battle | Greece | Prince
|
Victory | 335 BC | Balkan Campaign | Battle of Mount Haemus | Getae, Thracians | Battle | Bulgaria | King
|
Victory | December 335 BC | Balkan Campaign | Siege of Pelium | Illyrians | Siege | Albania | King
|
Victory | December 335 BC | Balkan Campaign | Battle of Thebes | Thebans
|
Battle | Greece | King
|
Victory | May 334 BC | Persian Campaign | Battle of the Granicus | Achaemenid Empire | Battle | Turkey | King
|
Victory | 334 BC | Persian Campaign | Siege of Miletus | Milesians
|
Siege | Turkey | King
|
Victory | 334 BC | Persian Campaign | Siege of Halicarnassus | Achaemenid Empire | Siege | Turkey | King
|
Victory | 5 November 333 BC | Persian Campaign | Battle of Issus | Achaemenid Empire | Battle | Turkey | King
|
Victory | January–July 332 BC | Persian Campaign | Siege of Tyre | Tyrians
|
Siege | Lebanon | King
|
Victory | October 332 BC | Persian Campaign | Siege of Gaza | Achaemenid Empire | Siege | Palestine | King
|
Victory | 1 October 331 BC | Persian Campaign | Battle of Gaugamela | Achaemenid Empire | Battle | Iraq | King
|
Victory | December 331 BC | Persian Campaign | Battle of the Uxian Defile | Uxians
|
Battle | Iran | King
|
Victory | 20 January 330 BC | Persian Campaign | Battle of the Persian Gate | Achaemenid Empire | Battle | Iran | King
|
Victory | 329 BC | Persian Campaign | Siege of Cyropolis | Sogdians
|
Siege | Turkmenistan | King
|
Victory | October 329 BC | Persian Campaign | Battle of Jaxartes | Scythians | Battle | Uzbekistan | King
|
Victory | 327 BC | Persian Campaign | Siege of the Sogdian Rock | Sogdians
|
Siege | Uzbekistan | King
|
Victory | May 327 – March 326 BC | Indian Campaign | Cophen campaign | Aspasians
|
Expedition | Afghanistan and Pakistan | King
|
Victory | April 326 BC | Indian Campaign | Siege of Aornos | Aśvaka | Siege | Pakistan | King
|
Victory | May 326 BC | Indian Campaign | Battle of the Hydaspes | Porus
|
Battle | Pakistan | King
|
Victory | November 326 – February 325 BC | Indian Campaign | Siege of Multan
|
Malli
|
Siege | Pakistan | King
|
See also
- Ancient Macedonian army
- Military tactics of Alexander the Great
- Wars of Cyrus the Great
- Diadochi
- Roman-Persian wars
References
- ISBN 978-0-7139-9224-3. p.172: "In scope and extent his achievements ranked far above that of the Macedonian king, Alexander ("the Great") who was to demolish the empire in the 320s but failed to provide any stable alternative."
- ISBN 978-1-85799-122-2.
- ISBN 978-0-09-475270-2, p. 16.
- ^ Strudwick 2013, p. 97.
- ^ "Philip II: king of Macedonia". Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 11 July 2023.
- ^
- McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 30-31.
- Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 262-263
- Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 61-62
- Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 72
- ^ a b c d Strudwick 2013, p. 96.
- ^
- McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 31.
- Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 263
- Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 72
- Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 104
- Bose, Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy, p. 95
- ^
- Bose, Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy, p. 96.
- Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 72
- ^
- Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 44–48.
- Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 73–74.
- ^
- Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 50–54.
- Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 77.
- ^ Plutarch. Phocion. p. 17.
- ^ cf. Justinus, Marcus Junianus. Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. p. 11.6.
- ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 50.
- ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 48.
- ^ a b Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 51.
- ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. pp. 51–53.
- ^ https://issuu.com/sonjcemarceva/docs/alexander_the_great_-_historical_so Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine, see page 72 [Arrian, 1.16.7.]
- JSTOR 4435274.
- ^ Stafford, Ned (14 May 2007). "How geology came to help Alexander the Great". Nature.com. Retrieved 17 May 2007.
- ^ a b "Siege of Tyre and Gaza". Retrieved 19 January 2007.
- ^ "Leaders and Battles: Gaza, Siege of". Leaders and Battles Database. Archived from the original on 22 October 2006. Retrieved 18 January 2007.
- ^ "KurdishGlobe- The Location of the Battle of Gaugamela Discovered". www.kurdishglobe.net. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014.
- ^ "The Location of the Battle of Gaugamela Discovered - The Kurdish Globe (Erbil, Iraq) | HighBeam Research". 24 September 2015. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
- ]
- ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.
- ^ For the identification, see Henry Speck, "Alexander at the Persian Gates. A Study in Historiography and Topography" in: American Journal of Ancient History n.s. 1.1 (2002) 15-234; more... Archived 18 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Quintus Curtius Rufus
- ^ N. G. L. Hammond (1992). "The Archaeological and Literary Evidence for the Burning of the Persepolis Palace", The Classical Quarterly 42 (2), p. 358-364.
- ]
- ^ Narain, A. K. (1965). Alexander the Great: Greece and Rome – 12. pp. 155–165.
- ^ Curtius in McCrindle, Op cit, p 192, J. W. McCrindle; History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 229, Punajbi University, Patiala, (Editors): Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 134, Kirpal Singh.
- ^ Fuller, p. 198:
"While the battle raged, Craterus forced his way over the Haranpur ford. When he saw that Alexander was winning a brilliant victory he pressed on and, as his men were fresh, took over the pursuit."
- ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XVIII
- ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XIX
- ^ Peter Connolly. Greece and Rome at War. Macdonald Phoebus Ltd, 1981, p. 66
- ^ Bongard-Levin, G. (1979). A History of India. Moscow: Progress Publishers. p. 264.
- ^ Plutarch, "Alexander". p. 62.
- ^ "Plutarch • Life of Alexander (Part 7 of 7)". penelope.uchicago.edu.
Bibliography
- ISBN 978-0-14-044253-3.
- ISBN 978-1-85799-122-2.
- Farrokh, Kaveh (24 April 2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War (General Military). Osprey Publishing. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.
- ISBN 978-0-86007-707-7.
- Lane Fox, Robin (1980). The Search for Alexander. Little Brown & Co. Boston. ISBN 978-0-316-29108-8.
- ISBN 978-0-520-07166-7.
- ISBN 978-0-8129-7133-0.
- ISBN 978-0-394-73825-3.
- Robinson, Cyril Edward (1929). A History of Greece. ]
- Strudwick, Helen (2013). The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. London: Amber Books. ISBN 978-1-4351-4654-9.
- ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9.
- Worthington, Ian (2003). Alexander the Great. ISBN 978-0-415-29187-3.
- Worthington, Ian (2004). Alexander the Great: Man and God. Pearson. ISBN 978-1-4058-0162-1.
Further reading
- Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction, edited by A.B. Bosworth, E.J. Baynham. New York: ISBN 978-0-19-925275-6).
- Baynham, Elizabeth. Alexander the Great: The Unique History of Quintus Curtius. Ann Arbor: ISBN 978-0-472-03081-1).
- Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great by Joseph Roisman (editor). Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2003.
- ISBN 978-1-4000-7919-3).
- Dahmen, Karsten. The Legend of Alexander the Great on Greek and Roman Coins. Oxford: Routledge, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-415-39452-9).
- De Santis, Marc G. "At The Crossroads of Conquest". Military Heritage, December 2001. Volume 3, No. 3: 46–55, 97 (Alexander the Great, his military, his strategy at the Battle of Gaugamela and his defeat of Darius making Alexander the King of Kings).
- ISBN 978-0-306-80304-8
- Gergel, Tania Editor Alexander the Great (2004) published by the ISBN 978-0-14-200140-0Brief collection of ancient accounts translated into English
- Larsen, Jakob A. O. "Alexander at the Oracle of Ammon", Classical Philology, Vol. 27, No. 1. (January 1932), pp. 70–75.
- Lonsdale, David. Alexander the Great, Killer of Men: History's Greatest Conqueror and the Macedonian Way of War, New York, Carroll & Graf, 2004, ISBN 978-0-7867-1429-2
- Pearson, Lionel Ignacius Cusack. The Lost Histories of Alexander the Great. Chicago Ridge, IL: Ares Publishers, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 978-0-89005-590-8).
- Thomas, Carol G. Alexander the Great in his World (Blackwell Ancient Lives). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-631-23246-9).
External links
Primary sources
- Plutarch, Of the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander the Great (in English)
- Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus (in English)
- Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources Archived 4 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine from Livius.org
- Wiki Classical Dictionary, extant sources Archived 29 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine and fragmentary and lost sources
Other
- A Bibliography of Alexander the Great by Waldemar Heckel Archived 7 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- Pothos.org: Alexander's Home on the Web
- Alexander III the Great, entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
- Alexander the Great on the Web, a comprehensive directory of some 1,000 sites
- Alexander The Great in the French museum Le Louvre Archived 17 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- Alexander, The Great Mystery by T. Peter Limber in "Saudi Aramco Magazine"
- Trace Alexander's conquests on an animated map
- Alexander the Great of Macedon, a project by John J. Popovic
- Alexander in the Punjab. A Photo Essay Archived 13 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine, photos of all sites Alexander visited
- Alexander the Great Coins, a site depicting Alexander's coins and later coins featuring Alexander's image