Conrad Gessner
Conrad Gessner | |
---|---|
Swiss Confederacy | |
Died | 13 December 1565 Zürich, Swiss Confederacy | (aged 49)
Resting place | Grossmünster, Zürich |
Education | Carolinum, Zürich |
Alma mater | University of Basel, University of Montpellier |
Known for | Bibliotheca universalis and Historia animalium |
Scientific career | |
Fields | Botany, zoology and bibliography |
Author abbrev. (botany) | Gesner[1] |
Conrad Gessner (
Life
Conrad Gessner was born on 26 March 1516, in Zürich, Switzerland, the son of Ursus Gessner, a poor Zürich
Gessner first attended the
Throughout his life Gessner was interested in natural history, and collected specimens and descriptions of wildlife through travel and extensive correspondence with other friends and scholars. In 1543 Arnoldus Arlenius invited Gessner to Venice. Gessner travelled to Italy that same summer. He encountered Venetian printing and a hidden world of Greek manuscripts. [5][6]
Gessner's approach to research consisted of four main components: observation, dissection, travel to distant lands, and accurate description. This rising observational approach was new to Renaissance scholars because people usually relied completely upon Classical writers for their research. He died of the plague, the year after his ennoblement on 13 December 1565.[7]
Work
Conrad Gessner was a Renaissance
After three years of teaching at Lausanne, Gessner was able to travel to the medical school at the
After 1554 he became the
Gessner is credited with a number of the first descriptions of species in Europe, both animals such as the
Publications
Gessner's first work was a Latin-Greek Dictionary, the Lexicon Graeco-Latinum (1537),[20] compiled during his studies in Basel. This was a revision of an original work by the Italian cleric, Varinus Phavorinus or Guarino of Favera (d. 1537), Magnum ac perutile dictionarium (1523).[3][11] Over his lifetime he was able to produce some 70 publications on many different subjects.
His next major work was his unique
Not content with scientific works, Gessner was also active as a
A number of other works appeared after his death (
Bibliotheca universalis (1545–1549)
In 1545, after four years of research, Gessner published his remarkable Bibliotheca universalis,[21] an exhaustive catalogue of all known works in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, of all writers who had ever lived, with the titles of their works, and brief annotations.[8] The work, which included his own bio-bibliography, listed some three thousand authors alphabetically, and was the first modern bibliography published since the invention of printing. Through it, Gessner became known as the "father of bibliography." In all, about twelve thousand titles were included.
A second part, a thematic index to the work, Pandectarum sive partitionum universalium libri xxi,[34] appeared in 1548. Although the title indicated that twenty one parts were intended, only nineteen books were included. Part 20, intended to include his medical work, was never finished and part 21, a theological encyclopaedia, was published separately in 1549.
Historia animalium (1551–1558)
Gessner's great
In Historia animalium Gessner combines data from old sources, such as the Old Testament, Aristotle, Pliny, folklore, and medieval bestiaries, adding his own observations. He created a new, comprehensive description of the Animal Kingdom. This was the first attempt by anyone to describe many animals accurately. The book unlike many works of its time was illustrated with hand-colored woodcuts drawn from personal observations by Gessner and his colleagues.[35]
Even though he sought to distinguish observed facts from myths and popular errors and was known for his accurate depiction of many animals in Historia animalium, he also included many fictional animals such as the Unicorn and the Basilisk, which he had only heard about from medieval bestiaries. But when Gessner doubted the accuracy of the opinions he relayed in his own writings, or the validity of the illustrations he included, he clearly said so. Besides any plant or animal's potential advantage to people, Gessner was interested in learning about them because of the moral lessons they could teach and the divine truths they might tell. He went into as much detail about some unreal animals as he did about real ones.[36] Later in 1556 he also combined real and fictional creatures in his edition of the works of Claudius Aelianus.
Historia animalium includes sketches for many well-known animals, and some fictional ones, including unicorns and mermaids. He accomplished many of his works in a large part due to the web of acquaintances he established with leading naturalists throughout Europe, who included
Historia plantarum (unfinished)
Over his lifetime, Gessner amassed a considerable collection of plants and seeds and made extensive notes and
Censorship
There was extreme religious tension at the time that Historia animalium came out. Under
List of selected publications
- Gessner, Conrad (1541) [1537]. Lexicon Graeco-Latinum, ex Phavorini Camertis Lexico. Basel: Walder.[note 1]
- — (1541a). Libellus de lacte et operibus lactariis.[note 2]
- — (1541b). Historiae plantarum et vires.[note 3]
- — (1542). Catalogus plantarum Latinè, Graecè, Germanicè, & Gallicè. Zurich: Apud Christoph. Froschoverum.[note 4]
- — (1545). Bibliotheca Universalis, sive Catalogus omnium Scriptoum locupletissimus, in tribus linguis, Latina, Græca, & Hebraica; extantium & non-extantium, veterum et recentiorum in hunc usque diem ... publicatorum et in Bibliothecis latentium, etc. Zurich: Christophorum Froschouerum., see also Bibliotheca universalis
- — (1548). Pandectarum sive Partitionum ... libri XXI. Zurich: Christophorus Froschoverus., see also Bibliotheca universalis
- — (1549). Partitiones theologicae.
- — (1555). Appendix bibliothecae.
- — (1551–1558). Historiae animalium.
- 1551 Quadrupedes vivipares
- 1554 Quadrupedes ovipares
- 1555 Avium natura
- 1558 Piscium & aquatilium animantium natura
- — (1552). Thesaurus Euonymi Philiatri.
- — (1553). Corpus Venetum de Balneis.
- — (1555). Descriptio Montis Fracti sive Montis Pilati ut vulgo nominant iuxta Lucernam in Helvetia per Conradum Gesnerum.[note 5]
- — (1555a). Mithridates. De differentiis linguarum [...]. Froschoverus.
- — (1561). In hoc volumine continentur ....De hortus Germaniae. Argentorati: Iosias Rihelius.
- Geßner, Cůnrat; Forer, Cůnrat (1563). Thierbůch Das ist ein kurtze bschreybung aller vierfüssigen Thieren [...]
- Posthumous works
- Schatz Euonymi, 1582/1583
- Der erste Theil, deß köstlichen unnd theuren Schatzes Euonymi Philiatri [...] Erstlich in Latein beschrieben durch Euonymum Philiatrum, und neuwlich verteutscht durch Joannem Rudolphum Landenberger zu Zürych, 1582 Band 1
- Ander Theil des Schatzs Euonymi [...] Erstlich zusammen getragen, durch Herren Doctor Cunrat Geßner, Demnach von Caspar Wolffen der Artzneyen Doctor in Zürich in Latin beschriben und in Truck gefertiget, jetzund aber newlich von Johan. Jacobo Nüscheler Doctorn, in Teütsche Sprach vertolmetschet., 1583 Band 2 Band 2
- Gäßner, Cůnradt; Forer, Cůnradt (1575). Fischbůch Das ist ein kurtze, doch vollkommne beschreybung aller Fischen [...].
- Geßner, Cůnrat; Forer, Cůnrat (1583). Thierbůch Das ist ein kurtze beschreybung aller vier füssigen Thieren [...].
- Geßner, Conrat; Carronus, Jacobus (1589). Schlangenbůch. Das ist ein grundtliche und vollkommne Beschreybung aller Schlagen [...]
- Geßner, Conrad; Heußlich, Rudolff (1600). Vogelbuch oder ausführliche beschreibung und lebendige ja auch eygentliche Controfactur und Abmahlung aller und jeder Vögel [...].
- Wotton, Edward; Gesner, Conrad; Penny, Thomas (1634). Muffet, Thomas (ed.). Insectorvm Sive Minimorum Animalivm Theatrvm. London: Cotes.
- Gessner, Conrad (1754) [1555–1565]. Schmidel, Casimir Christoph; Trew, Christoph Jacob (eds.). Conradi Gesneri philosophi et medici celeberrimi Opera botanica, per duo saecula desiderata, vitam avctoris et operis historiam Cordi librvm qvintvm cvm adnotationibvs Gesneri in totvm opvs vt et Wolphii fragmentvm historiae plantarvm Gesnerianae adivnctis, indicibvs iconvm tam olim editarvm qvam nvnc prodevntivm cvm figvris vltra CCCC. minoris formae, partim ligno excisis partim aeri inscvlptis complectentia, qvae ex bibliotheca D. Christophori Iacobi Trew ... nvnc primvm in lvcem edidit et praefatvs est D. Casimirvs Christophorvs Schmiedel. Nuremberg: Impensis Io. Mich. Seligmanni, typis Io. Iosephi Fleischmanni.
- Edited works
- Aelianus, Claudius (1565) [1556 Claudii Aeliani praenestini pontificis et sophistae]. Gessner, Conrad (ed.). Aeliani Claudii opera quae extant omnia: graece latinaque ... : his acc. ind. alphabeticus copiosus. Zurich: Gesneri.[note 6]
- Tiguri: F. Gesnerum.[note 7]
- Works in translation
- Gessner, Conrad (1937). Dock, W. (ed.). Conrad Gesner. On the Admiration of Mountains, the Prefatory Letter Addressed to Jacob Avienus, Physician, in Gesner's Pamphlet "On Milk and Substances Prepared from Milk", first Printed at Zürich in 1543. A Description of the Riven Mountain, Commonly Called Mount Pilatus, Addressed to J. Chrysostome Huber, Originally Printed with Another Work of Gesner's at Zürich in 1555. Together With: On Conrad Gesner and The Mountaineering of Theuerdank, by J. Monroe Thorington. Bibliographical Notes by W. Dock and J.M. Thorington. With illustrations. trans. Henry Douglas Bacon Soulé. San Francisco: Grabhorn Press.
Legacy
Gessner has been described as the father of modern scientific botany and zoology, and the father of modern bibliography. To his contemporaries he was best known as a botanist.[4] Despite his traveling ways and the job of maintaining his own gardens, Gesner probably spent most of his time inside his own extensive library.[39] He listed among his History of Animals sources more than 80 Greek authors and at least 175 Latin authors, as well as works by German, French, and Italian authors. He even attempted to establish a "universal library" of all books in existence. The project might sound strange to the modern mind, but Gessner invested tremendous energy in the project. He sniffed through remote libraries along with the collections of the Vatican Library and catalogs of printers and booksellers. By assembling this universal library of information, Gessner put together a database centuries before computers would ease such work. He cut relevant passages out of books, grouped the cuttings by general theme, subdivided the groups into more specific categories, and boxed them. He could then retrieve and arrange the cuttings as needed. In the words of science writer Anna Pavord, "He was a one-man search engine, a 16th-century Google with the added bonus of critical evaluation."[40]
To his contemporaries, Gessner was known as "the Swiss Pliny." According to legend, when he knew his time was near, he asked to be taken to his library where he had spent so much of his life, to die among his favorite books. At the time of his death, Gesner had published 72 books, and written 18 more unpublished manuscripts. His work on plants was not published until centuries after his death.[36]
In 1576
Eponomy
In 1753
The flowering plant genus Gesneria and its family Gesneriaceae are named after him. A genus of moths is also named Gesneria after him.Memorials
- The Gessner herbal garden at the Old Botanical Garden, Zürich, is named after him, and there is a bust in the garden in his memory (see image)
- The cloister in the Carolinum, Zürich in the Grossmünster church, where Gessner is buried, also houses a herbal garden dedicated to him.[46]
- Gessner was featured on the 50 Swiss francsbanknotes issued between 1978 and 1994.
- On 16 March 2016 the State Museum in Zürich, in close collaboration with Zurich’s Central Library (Zentralbibliothek Zürich), dedicated a special exhibition to Gessner in celebration of the 500th anniversary of his birth.[47]
See also
Notes
- ^ The name has a number of spellings, including Konrad Gessner, Konrad Gesner, Conradi Gesneri, Conrad Geßner, Conrad Gesner, Conrad von Gesner, Cuonrat and Cunrat. The single-"s" Gesner derives incorrectly from the Latin form Conradus Gesnerus.[2]
- ^ Provincial governor and a leader of Swiss protestants[11]
- Bibliographic notes
- ^ Lexicon Graeco-Latinum: Commissioned by Basel printer Johannes Walder (d. 1542), who omitted Gessner's name. Reprinted 1541, followed by several later editions and revisions[11]
- ^ Libellus de lacte: For prefatory letter to Jacob Avienus in translation, On the admiration of mountains, see Works in translation[10]
- Dioscorides to Pliny the Elder[11]
- ^ Catalogus plantarum: Alphabetical catalogue of plant names in four languages[11]
- ^ Descriptio Montis Fracti sive Montis Pilati: For English translation A Description of the Riven Mountain, Commonly Called Mount Pilatus, see Works in translation[10]
- ^ Claudii Aeliani praenestini pontificis: Considered to be the first critical edition (editio princeps) of the works of this author
- Wilhelm Holtzman. Since the Codex was later destroyed by fire, Gessner's version became the editio princeps[11]
References
- ^ Brummitt & Powell 1992.
- ^ a b Pyle 2000.
- ^ a b c d e f Fischer 1966.
- ^ a b c d e f Pettitt 2014.
- ^ Nelles, Paul "Conrad Gessner and the Mobility of the Book," pp.39-66. In Bellingradt, Daniel., Paul. Nelles, and Jeroen. Salman, eds. Books in Motion in Early Modern Europe Beyond Production, Circulation and Consumption. 1st ed. 2017. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017.
- ^ Sabba,F. La ‘Bibliotheca Universalis’ di Conrad Gesner: monumento della cultura europea. Conrad Gessner, 127–136. (Rome, 2012), Conrad Gessner, 127–136.
- ^ Murray 2009, p. 89.
- ^ a b c d Chisholm 1911.
- ^ Gessner 1541a.
- ^ a b c Gessner 1937.
- ^ a b c d e f g Wellisch 1975.
- ^ Gessner 1555.
- ^ Freye & Thenius 1977.
- ^ North 2015.
- ^ a b Grout 2017.
- ^ Gessner 1561, p. 212
- ^ Cannon & Nedergaard 2008.
- ^ Parrott-Sheffer 2008.
- ^ Ley, Willy (December 1965). "The Healthfull Aromatick Herbe". For Your Information. Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 88–98.
- ^ Gessner 1541.
- ^ a b Gessner 1545.
- ^ a b Gessner 1551–1558.
- ^ Gessner 1541b.
- ^ Gessner 1542.
- ^ a b Gessner 1754.
- ^ Gesnerus 1555a.
- ^ Gessner 1556.
- ^ Gessner 1559.
- ^ Muffet 1634.
- ^ Topsell 1658.
- ^ Jessop 2002.
- ^ Modernity 2017.
- ^ GDZ 2017.
- ^ Gessner 1548.
- ^ TTP 2015.
- ^ a b c d Scott 2017.
- ^ Schulze 2006, p. 38.
- ^ D'Amico 1988, p. 46
- ^ Leu et al 2008.
- ISBN 9781596919655.
- ^ Platter 2017.
- ^ Backus 2016.
- ^ Simler 1566.
- ^ Fischer 1966a.
- ^ Linnaeus 1753.
- ^ Stadt Zürich 2017.
- ^ National Museum 2016.
- ^ International Plant Names Index. Gesner.
Further reading
Books and theses
- Applebaum, Wilbur, ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of the Scientific Revolution: From Copernicus to Newton. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 978-1-135-58255-5.
- Backus, Irena (2016). "3: Zurich lives in the latter part of the sixteenth century - The biography of Gesner by Simler". Life Writing in Reformation Europe: Lives of Reformers by Friends, Disciples and Foes. ISBN 978-1-317-10518-3.
- Bay, Jens Christian (1963) [1916 Bibliographical Society of America]. Conrad Gesner (1516–1565), the Father of Bibliography: An Appreciation. Kraus Reprint Corporation.
- Blair, Ann M. (2010). Too Much to Know: Managing Scholarly Information before the Modern Age. ISBN 978-0-300-16849-5.
- Brummitt, R.K.; Powell, C.E. (1992). Authors of Plant Names. ISBN 1-84246-085-4. see also Authors of Plant Names
- Buss, Jared S. (2014). Willy Ley, The science writers, and the popular reenchantment of science (PDF) (PhD thesis). Department of History of Science, University of Oklahoma.
- public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Gesner, Konrad von". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 909–910. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
- Dewald, Jonathan, ed. (2004). Europe 1450 to 1789: encyclopedia of the early modern world 6 vols. ISBN 978-0-684-31206-4.
- Fischer, Hans (1966a). Conrad Gessner 1516–1565 (PDF) (in German). Zurich: Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Zürich.
- Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus; Eisentraut, Martin; Freye, Hans Albrecht, eds. (1977). Grzimeks Tierleben. Band 11: Säugetiere 2.Schimpansen–Hörnchenverwandtschaft (in German). Zürich: Kindler Verlag. see also Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia
- Hanhart, Johannes (1824). Conrad Geßner: ein Beytrag zur Geschichte des wissenschaftlichen Strebens und der Glaubensverbesserung im 16ten Jahrhundert (in German). Winterthur: Steiner.
- Krajewski, Markus; Krapp, Peter (2011). Paper Machines: About Cards & Catalogs, 1548-1929. ISBN 978-0-262-29727-1.
- Kusukawa, Sachiko (2012). Picturing the Book of Nature: Image, Text, and Argument in Sixteenth-Century Human Anatomy and Medical Botany. ISBN 978-0-226-46529-6.
- Leu, Urs; Keller, Raffael; Weidmann, Sandra (2008). Conrad Gessner's Private Library. ISBN 978-90-474-3350-7.
- Ley, Willy (1929). Konrad Gesner: Leben und Werk (in German). Münchner Drucke.
- Ley, Willy (1968). Dawn of Zoology. ISBN 9786000386634.
- Linnaeus, Carl (1753). "Tulipa gesneriana". Species Plantarum vol. 1. Vol. 1. p. 306. see also Species Plantarum
- Manning, Gideon; Klestinec, Cynthia, eds. (2017). Professors, Physicians and Practices in the History of Medicine: Essays in Honor of Nancy Siraisi. ISBN 978-3-319-56514-9.
- Murray, Stuart A. P. (2009). The Library: An Illustrated History. Skyhorse Publishing. p. 89. ISBN 978-1616084530.
- Ogilvie, Brian W. (2008). The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe. ISBN 978-0-226-62086-2.
- ISBN 0-7475-4296-1.
- Schmitt, C. B., ed. (1988). The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-521-39748-3.
- Schulze, Sabine, ed. (2006). Gärten: Ordnung, Inspiration, Glück (in German). Frankfurt am Main: ISBN 978-3-7757-1870-7.
- Tiguri: C Froschoverum.
- Smith, Charles Hamilton (1866). "Memoir of Gesner". In Jardine, William (ed.). The Naturalist's Library Volume 20 Mammals: Horses. London: W.H. Lizars. pp. 1–58.
- Springer, Katharina B.; Kinzelbach, Ragnar K. (2008). Das Vogelbuch von Conrad Gessner (1516-1565): Ein Archiv für avifaunistische Daten (in German). ISBN 978-3-540-85284-1.
- Topsell, Edward, ed. (1658). The history of four-footed beasts and serpents. London: E. Cotes.
Chapters
- Anon. Gesner, Konrad von (1516-1565). pp. 909–910. Retrieved 6 October 2017., in Chisholm (1911)
- D'Amico, John F. Printing and censorship. pp. 25–53., in Schmitt (1988)
- Blair, Ann (15 May 2017). The dedication strategies of Conrad Gessner. Springer. pp. 169–210. ISBN 9783319565149., in Manning & Klestinec (2017)
- Freye, H.A; Thenius, E. Die Nagetiere. pp. 204–211., in Grzimek et al (1977)
- Pyle, CM (16 December 2003). Gessner, Conrad (1516–1565). Routledge. pp. 265–266. ISBN 9781135582555., in Applebaum (2000)
- Pyle, CM. Gessner, Conrad (Also Konrad Gesner, 1516–1565)., in Dewald (2004)
Articles
- Baldi, Diego. "Conrad Gesner, i Loci Communes dello pseudo Massimo Confessore e la Melissa del monaco Antonio". Bibliothecae.it. 3 (1): 19–61.
- Cannon, Barbara; Nedergaard, Jan (21 August 2008). "Developmental biology: Neither fat nor flesh" (PDF). S2CID 205040511.
- Fischer, Hans (1966). "Conrad Gessner (1516–1565) as Bibliographer and Encyclopedist". .
- Jessop, L. (February 2002). "Moufet, T. . (Edited by G. Thomson.) Privately published by George Thomson, Lockerbie: 2000. Pp 45. Price £ 65". .
- Pyle, Cynthia Munro (2000). "Conrad Gessner on the Spelling of his Name". Archives of Natural History. 27 (2): 175–186. PMID 15309750.
- Wellisch, Hans (Hanan) (June 1975). "Conrad Gessner: a bio-bibliography". Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History. 7 (2): 151–247. .
Websites
- "Gessner, Conrad, 1516–1565". Biodiversity Heritage Library. Retrieved 2 October 2017. listing of works held
- "Kreuzgang Grossmünster" (in German). Hochbaudepartement, Stadt Zürich. 2017. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
- "Conrad Gessner 1516–2016". Swiss National Museum, Zurich. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
- Scott, Michon (26 March 2017). "Conrad Gesner". Strange Science: The rocky road to modern paleontology and biology. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
- Grout, James. "Conrad Gessner". Encyclopaedia Romana. University of Chicago. Retrieved 28 September 2017.
- Parrott-Sheffer, Chelsey (20 August 2008). "Pencil". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
- Biography
- Pettitt, George A. (18 February 2014). "Conrad Gesner". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
- Westfall, Richard S. (1993). "Gesner [Gessner], Konrad". The Galileo Project. Rice University. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
- Zoology
- "Animal drawings collected by Felix Platter (1536-1614), part 2". University of Amsterdam.
- "Moffett, Thomas (1553-1604) Insectorum, sive, Minimorum animalium theatrum". Origins of modernity: Natural history. University of Sydney Library. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
- Wotton, Edward; Gesner, Conrad; Penny, Thomas (1634). Muffet, Thomas (ed.). Insectorvm Sive Minimorum Animalivm Theatrvm. University of Goettingen. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
{{cite book}}
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ignored (help) - Gesner, Conrad (25 February 2015). "Historiae Animalium". Turning the Pages. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
- Gessner, Conrad. "Thierbuch". HUMI (Humanities Media Interface) Project: Natural History Books. Keio University. Archived from the original on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
- North, Michael (23 November 2015). "An early look at the Turkey". Circulating Now. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
External links
- Urs B. Leu: Konrad Gessner in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
- "Gessner, Conrad (Konrad)". SIKART Lexicon on art in Switzerland.
- The Natural History of Horses, with Memoir of Gesner by Charles Hamilton Smith
- Images from Icones Animalium... 1560.
- Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries Archived 15 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of Conrad Gessner in .jpg and .tiff format.
- In 2012, Amsterdam University Library digitised the so-called Gessner albums (press release). Some of Gessner's drawings have been made available on Flickr: fish and other creatures of the sea, mammals.
- Gesner, Conrad (1565) De omni rerum fossilium genere, gemmis, lapidibus, metallis, et huiusmod – digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library
- Conrad Gessner at enotes
- McCarthy, Eugene M. "Conrad Gesner.", Macroevolution 2013