Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
"Conrad II" redirects here. For other uses, see Conrad II (disambiguation).

Conrad II
Lower Lorraine, Kingdom of Germany, Holy Roman Empire
Burial
Speyer Cathedral
Spouse
Henry, Count of Speyer
MotherAdelaide of Metz

Conrad II (Konrad II, c. 989/990 – 4 June 1039), also known as Conrad the Elder and Conrad the Salic, was the

Italy (from 1026) and Burgundy
(from 1033).

The son of

imperial princes appointed the 34-year-old Conrad king (Rex romanorum).[1][2]

Conrad II adopted many aspects of his

Kingdom of Burgundy, conquered it with German and Italian troops, and incorporated it into the empire.[2][6]
The three kingdoms (Germany, Italy and Burgundy) formed the basis of the empire as the "royal triad" (regna tria).

Early life

Family background

Conrad's parents
Father Henry of Speyer, c.1237
Mother Adelaide of Metz (b,l), 1037 foundation of the Öhringen Convent of canons

The origins of the

Otto of Worms, who was also the grandson of Otto I. In between 965 and 970, Otto of Worms' first son and Conrad II's father Henry of Speyer was born, of whom only very little is known. He died at the age of 20 between 985 and 990. Conrad II's mother was Adelaide of Metz. After Henry's death, Adelaide married a Frankish nobleman and the relationship with Conrad declined.[8]

In 978

Henry IV of Bavaria. In 996, Otto III invested Otto of Worms' son Bruno as Pope Gregory V. When Emperor Otto III died in 1002, both Otto of Worms, Conrad's grandfather, and Henry IV became eligible for Kingship of Germany. In a compromise, Otto withdrew and in return received the Duchy of Carinthia from the newly elected king Henry IV, who ruled as Henry II of Germany. As a result, Otto of Worms renounced his fiefs at Worms to Bishop Burchard of Worms, a long-time political rival.[9]

After the early death of his uncle

Adalbero of Eppenstein due to Conrad the Younger's infancy. Conrad the Younger was taken care of by his cousin Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor the Elder.[2][10]

Adulthood

In 1016 Conrad married the twice-widowed

Archbishop Poppo of Trier in 1016. This action further strained the already rough relationship between the imperial House of Otto and the Salian family.[12][13]

Conrad II's hopes to obtain his own duchy failed, but the marriage to Gisela brought him wealth. Her mother,

Emperor Henry II relied on this violation of canon law when he forced Conrad into temporary exile. During this exile, Gisela bore Conrad a son, the future emperor Henry III, on 28 October 1017. Conrad and Emperor Henry II eventually reconciled and he returned to Germany.[10][13]

Reign as king

Royal election

Emperor Henry II died childless in 1024, bringing an end to the

primate of Germany, also assisted Cunigunde.[15]

On 4 September 1024, the German princes gathered at Kamba, a historical name for an area on the east banks of the

Frederick II of Upper Lorraine did not support him.[17]

Speyer Cathedral, consecrated in 1061

Conrad was crowned

king of Germany by Archbishop Aribo in Mainz Cathedral on 8 September 1024 at the age of 34.[18][19] To mark his election, Conrad commissioned the construction of Speyer Cathedral, near his ancestral home of Worms. Construction began in 1030. Archbishop Aribo, as archbishop of Mainz, was already the chancellor of Germany. Conrad wanted to reward the archbishop for his electoral support, so he made Aribo chancellor of Italy as well, making Aribo the second most powerful man in the Holy Roman Empire as the imperial chancellor.[20][21]

Aribo refused to crown Conrad's wife Gisela as queen as their marriage violated canon law. Conrad refused to accept Archbishop Aribo's position. Archbishop Pilgrim of Cologne saw the situation as an opportunity to restore his relationship with the king, after refusing to support Conrad's election, and he crowned Gisela queen on 21 September 1024. The political reorientation of Pilgrim also weakened the opposition towards the new king.[22]

Early reign

Conrad inherited a kingdom troubled by problems. The dukes of Saxony and Lorraine and his cousin Conrad of Carinthia opposed his rule. In order to strengthen his position, Conrad and Gisela embarked on a royal tour. At

Emperor Otto II. They supported Conrad, which helped to rally the Saxon nobility behind him. During Christmas at Minden, the Saxon nobles, led by Duke Bernard II, officially recognized him as sovereign. He in turn had vowed to respect and honour the ancient Saxon customs and laws. Conrad and Gisela would remain in Saxony until March 1025, when they moved on to the Duchy of Swabia, celebrating Easter at Augsburg and then proceeded on to the Duchy of Bavaria, spending the feast of Pentecost at Regensburg. The royal couple finally visited Zürich, where after ten months they ended their tour. Conrad then entered Burgundy in order to renew the royal claim, that, in 1016, Emperor Henry II had forced the childless Burgundian King Rudolph III to name him as his heir.[23]

Conrad needed to address the longstanding "

Primate of Germany, counted on Conrad, who was indebted to Aribo for his support during the royal election. In January 1027, the king summoned a synod at Frankfurt to end the dispute, but a conclusion could not be reached. He called another synod in September 1028, which also failed. Only a third synod in 1030 solved the conflict when Bishop Gotthard of Hildesheim renounced his claims in favour of Aribo.[23][24]

During his royal tour at Augsburg, Conrad and his younger cousin Conrad the Younger engaged in an argument, that, although not entirely clear, was related to the younger Conrad's demands of yet-unpaid compensation that Conrad II had promised him for withdrawing from the 1024 election. The lack of conflict between them after September 1027 suggests that they reconciled by then.[25]

Unrest in Italy

King of the Lombards
.

In Bavaria, Conrad came into contact with members of the Italian ruling elite for the first time. In June 1025, bishops from

William V of Aquitaine, who, initially intrigued by the offer, rejected it as well.[26][27]

When the news of Henry's death spread, the citizens of Pavia revolted and destroyed the local imperial palace of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great, built during the 5th century.[28] Though Pavia was no longer the seat of imperial administration in Italy since the Ottonian dynasty, the palace had been perceived as a symbol of imperial authority in Italy and its mere presence within the city walls had been deemed intolerable. Pavia had—thanks to its strategic location on the trade routes from Italy to Burgundy and France—become an important commercial centre. The local merchants and aristocrats demanded the greatest possible autonomy from imperial control.[6] Schutz notes that Pavia disliked the financial burden they had to bear whenever the monarchs came to the citadel. The bishops protested the separatist movement though, as they fared better under imperial protection than under local princes.[27]

In the wake of the ecclesiastical mission, a party of noblemen from Pavia travelled north to meet Conrad and asked for severance from the Empire. The emissaries justified the actions of their fellow citizens by claiming that Pavia had always been loyal to the Italian king, as long as the king was alive and present, and that the revolt had taken place when the Italian throne was vacant. Conrad rejected the argument, that just as a ship remains devoted to its captain after his death, the Empire remains imperial property after the death of an emperor. The kingdom of Italy, according to Conrad, belonged to the empire as a matter of legal right. In his Constitutio de feudis ("Edict on the Benefices of the Italian Kingdom") of 1038 he would determine his regulations of the feudal contracts in Italy.[29] Conrad also declared that the Ostrogothic palace was property of the Empire and therefore the king had the right to punish those responsible for its destruction. The Pavian embassy returned to Italy in opposition to Salian rule.[6]

In February 1026, Conrad assembled a large army of armoured knights for an expedition into Italy, including troops commanded by both Archbishop

Emperor Otto III. When Leo died a few days later, Archbishop Aribert became the chief supporter of the Salian dynasty in Italy. With Conrad's assistance, Aribert rose to the highest-ranking religious office in Italy and oversaw the expansion of the Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan. In June 1026, Conrad led his army to Ravenna, but quartering his soldiers among the Ravennese population caused tensions in the city. Conrad then marched north to mitigate the risk the summer heat might pose to his army. In autumn Conrad left his summer camp in the Po Valley and marched to the Burgundian border. Conrad then celebrated Christmas at Ivrea. By the end of winter, the Italian aristocrats voluntarily ended their opposition to Conrad's reign. Pavia, however, remained in revolt until early 1027 when Abbot Odilo of Cluny brokered a peace deal between the city and Conrad.[30]

Reign as emperor

Imperial coronation

The Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire. Conrad was crowned as Emperor on 26 March 1027, by Pope John XIX.

On 26 March 1027,

Cnut the Great, King of England, Denmark and Norway; Rudolph III of Burgundy and around 70 senior clerics, including the Archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, Trier, Magdeburg, Salzburg, Milan and Ravenna.[18] Rudolph of Burgundy's attendance suggested surprisingly good relations between Burgundy and the Holy Roman Empire. During the festivities, a power struggle between the archbishops of Milan and Ravenna ensued and was settled in favour of Milan. Subsequently, Conrad left Rome and toured south to receive homage from the Southern Italian principalities of Capua and Salerno and the Duchy of Benevento.[32]

After his coronation, Conrad issued decrees reorganising the monasteries and dioceses of Italy, with the explicit objective of bringing the

Patriarchate of Grado, an ally of the Byzantine Empire. The Aquileian Poppo had been a loyal supporter of Emperor Henry II, who had appointed him patriarch in 1020. Conrad's action placed the patriarchate at Grado under Poppo's authority, securing Poppo's loyalty by making him the Emperor's top official in northern Italy. The synod also limited the political autonomy of Venice. In so doing, Conrad broke with the policies of his predecessors and revoked Venice's privileged trading status.[17]

In May 1027 Conrad returned to Germany in order to attend the funeral of Duke

Henry V of Bavaria at Regensburg. Conrad asserted his right to appoint the new Duke of Bavaria. He made the unprecedented decision of choosing his 10-year-old son Henry
, ignoring several suitable candidates who held valid claims to the fief.

The young prince assumed Bavarian rule on 24 June 1027. Following Henry's appointment, Conrad held court at Regensburg and decreed that all imperial property in the duchy must be documented. This required the various counts and bishops to report all imperial property in their domains, castles and abbeys. Even the

dowager empress Cunigunde of Luxembourg was required to report to Conrad, who even claimed that Cunegonde's wittum (money and property she had inherited from her deceased husband Emperor Henry II) belonged to him. These dubious claims to property and the excessive promotion of imperial authority over ducal and clerical affairs throughout Bavaria caused, unsurprisingly, new tension between him and the German aristocracy.[13][33]

Uprising in Swabia

In 1025, Duke

Ernest II of Swabia, Conrad's stepson from his marriage to Gisela of Swabia, rebelled against his stepfather when he was elected king of Germany. By 1026, Conrad had defeated the resistance and Ernest submitted to his reign. Due to the intervention of his mother Gisela, Ernest was allowed to accompany Conrad on his expedition to Italy in 1026. During the expedition, the rebellion led by Conrad of Carinthia and Count Welf II of Swabia continued. Conrad had named Bishop Bruno of Augsburg
regent of Germany while he marched south to Italy. When Bruno was defeated by the rebels, Conrad sent Ernest back to Germany in September 1026 to end the revolt. When Ernest returned, however, he joined the rebels.

In 1027 Conrad returned to Germany after his imperial coronation and held court at Augsburg, calling upon the rebels to surrender. Ernest, trusting in the number and fidelity of his vassals, rejected the peace offer and appealed to his Swabian counts to join him in the rebellion. According to Wipo of Burgundy, the counts refused, stating that while they had sworn loyalty to Ernest, they would not rebel against their Emperor. Without the support of the Swabian counts, Ernest, Conrad of Carinthia and Count Welf surrendered to Conrad at Worms on 9 September 1027, ending the rebellion. Conrad stripped Ernest of his ducal title and imprisoned him at Giebichenstein Castle in Saxony. Gisela supported Conrad against her son but did not want Ernest to be entirely humiliated. As a result of his mother's intervention, Conrad allowed Ernest to retain his title while imprisoned, with Gisela serving as regent over the duchy.[17]

In 1028, after Conrad's son

Bishop of Constance. The fall of Ernest greatly weakened the sovereignty of Swabia. Conrad appointed Ernest's younger brother Herman as a new Swabian prince. As Herman was still an infant, the Bishop of Constance was assigned his regent. Eight years later in 1038, Herman died and Conrad installed his own son Henry as duke, securing imperial control over the duchy.[17]

Conflict with Adalbero

Emperor Conrad disapproved of Duke Adalbero's increasingly indiscreet and quasi-independent rule of his estates Carinthia and Verona, that compromised the stability at the crossroads of the empire

Conrad had to enforce his royal prerogatives in the Duchy of Carinthia and the Duchy of Swabia. Duke Adalbero of Carinthia had been appointed as duke in 1012 under Emperor Henry II and remained loyal to imperial authority, supporting Conrad's election as German king in 1024. At a synod in Frankfurt in September 1027, Conrad attempted to resolve the decades-long "Gandersheim Conflict". Adalbero accompanied the Emperor and acted as his sword-bearer during the proceeding, indicating Conrad's trust in him. From 1028 on, Adalbero governed his duchy as an independent state.

In particular, he attempted to conduct peaceful relations with King Stephen I of the Hungary. Under Emperor Henry II, who was the brother-in-law to Stephen, relations between the Empire and Hungary had been friendly. Upon Henry's death in 1024, Conrad adopted a more aggressive policy, prompting border raids into the Empire from Hungary. The raids particularly affected Adalbero's domain of Carinthia, which shared a long, eastern border with Hungary.[34][35]

Conrad summoned Adalbero to court at Bamberg on 18 May 1035, to answer an indictment of treason for his actions regarding Hungary. In the presence of the German dukes, Conrad demanded that Adalbero be stripped of all his titles and lands. The dukes demurred and demanded that Conrad's son Henry, Germany's co-king and Conrad's designated successor, join the assembly before a decision was made. Henry refused to depose Adalbero, citing an earlier agreement with Adelbero to be his ally in negotiating a settlement between him and his father. Conrad resorted to exhortations, pleas and threats to convince Henry to support Adalbero's deposition. Henry's support was soon followed by that of the other dukes. Conrad then ordered Adalbero to be removed as Duke and sentenced him and his son to exile. After attacking Conrad's allies in Carinthia, Adalbero fled to his mother's estates in Ebersberg in the Duchy of Bavaria, where he remained until his death in 1039. The ducal seat of Carinthia remained unoccupied until 2 February 1035, when Conrad named his cousin Conrad the Younger as the new duke. With the appointment, the three southern German duchies of Swabia, Bavaria and Carinthia were all under the control of Emperor Conrad through his family members (his stepson Herman in Swabia, his son Henry in Bavaria, and his cousin Conrad in Carinthia).[36]

Control of the southern duchies allowed Conrad to continue the process begun under the Ottonian dynasty, centralizing the Emperor's authority over the Empire at the expense of the regional dukes. Conrad broke with Ottonian tradition, however, in favouring a more strict means of controlling rebellious vassals. Whereas the Ottonians followed a policy of informal public submission and subsequent reconciliation, Conrad used treason trials to declare rebels as "public enemies" to legitimize his subsequent harsh treatment, as he had done with Ernest II of Swabia and Adalbero. The nobles saw the use of these treason trials not as mere power shifts in favour of the Emperor, but as a cruel breach of German tradition.[37]

Policy towards the Church

Conrad continued the

divine right" to rule the Empire, the Ottonians increasingly viewed themselves as protectors of the church and thus demanded loyalty from the Church officials.[38] In return, the various bishoprics and abbeys of the Empire were granted extensive landholdings and secular authority, providing immunity from the jurisdiction of the secular nobles. As such, the Church officials reported exclusively to the Emperor, acting as his personal vassals.[39] As the Emperor's vassals, the Church officials were subject to the provision of two services: the servitium regis (royal service) and servitium militum (military service). Under royal service, the bishops and abbots were required to provide hospitality and accommodations to the Emperor and his court when he arrived. It also required the Church officials to act as quasi-bureaucracy for the Empire. Under military service, the Church was required to supply soldiers for the Emperor's army or to act as diplomats at his direction. Conrad energetically continued this tradition.[17][40]

In his biography of Conrad, the chronicler

theologian Wazo of Liège, then serving as the dean of the cathedral chapter for the Bishop of Liege. Though Conrad favoured Wazo to lead the German Church as Archbishop and Primate, Gisela convinced him to appoint Bardo instead.[10]

Relations with Poland

War with Mieszko Lambert

Duchy of Poland at its greatest extent under Bolesław I and his son Mieszko II Lambert

Duke

Eckard I of Meissen. The Empire and Poland enjoyed peace for the remainder of Henry's reign. However, Bolesław then seized the opportunity presented by Henry's death in 1024 and the subsequent interregnum to consolidate his own power, crowning himself King on Easter, 25 April 1025. Bolesław was thus the first Polish king, as his predecessors only held the ducal title of the political entity, called Civitas Schinesghe at the time, that had only a few decades ago revealed itself to the world and the Holy See in Rome.[43] Bolesław died within two months of his coronation, most likely due to an illness. His son, Mieszko II Lambert, succeeded him as King, crowned on Christmas, 1025. Upon assuming the Polish throne, Mieszko expelled his older half-brother Bezprym and his younger brother Otto Bolesławowic. Otto went west to seek Conrad II's protection.[44][45]

Conrad considered the assumption of the title "king" by Mieszko an act of war and a disregard of his imperial authority, but had to address domestic issues before dealing with Mieszko. In 1026 Conrad II marched into Italy to consolidate imperial authority south of the Alps and to claim the imperial crown from the Pope. In his absence, Duke

Frederick II of Upper Lorraine rebelled against his authority.[46]

The rebels sought the support of Mieszko, which the Polish king granted, promising to take military action against Conrad. Conrad returned to Germany in mid-1027, putting an end to the rebellion before Mieszko could deploy his forces. In preparation for his own invasion of Poland, Conrad developed a closer relationship with King Cnut of England and Denmark (whose kingdom lay beyond the Empire's northern border). Cnut accompanied Conrad at his imperial coronation in 1027, and Conrad granted Cnut authority over the March of Schleswig, the land bridge between Denmark and Germany.[47]

Main article: Germania Slavica

Fearing the possibility of a joint German-Danish attack, in 1028 Mieszko took the initiative and invaded

Margraviate of Meissen. Of the eastern marches, the Empire only kept the March of Lusatia. Mieszko's 1028 invasion ended the peace. The Lutici sent ambassadors to seek Conrad's protection against Mieszko, which Conrad granted and renewed the German-Lutician alliance.[50][51][52]

Conrad, seeking to relieve pressure on the Lutici, counter-invaded Poland in 1029 and besieged

Margraviate of Meissen and the March of Lusatia to the Empire.[53][54][55][56]

Treaty of Merseburg

Soon after Mieszko had concluded peace with the Empire, he was deposed by

Polish regalia to Conrad, officially renouncing the title "king" in favour of the traditional title "duke" and accepting the overlordship of the Empire over Poland.[53] The royal regalia were delivered by Mieszko II's wife, Richeza of Lotharingia.[30][57]

Bezprym's reign, however, was short. His extreme cruelty caused his half-brother Otto Bolesławowic to conspire against him. Bezprym's own men murdered him in the spring of 1032, which created a power vacuum in Poland. Conrad responded by holding a diet at Merseburg in 1033 to address the situation. Conrad's wife, Empress Gisela of Swabia, interceded on Mieszko's behalf and requested he be freed from imprisonment in Bohemia and allowed to regain the Polish throne. Under the terms of the Treaty of Merseburg, Conrad divided Poland among Mieszko, Otto and Detric, another half-brother. Mieszko was allowed to retain the title of Duke and nominal authority over all of Poland. Now that the Empire had a strong central leader, the treaty significantly increased the Empire's influence over Poland.[58][59]

The regulation was short-lived as in 1033 Otto was killed by one of his own men, and Mieszko II took over his domains. Shortly after, Mieszko expelled Detric and reunited the whole country. Though Mieszko regained his territory, he still was opposed by the nobility and his own subjects. Mieszko did not adopt Bezprym's renunciation of the Polish crown and continued to style himself as King. Mieszko II died soon after in 1034, and upon his death, a

Casimir I fled to the Empire.[55][58][59]

Relations with Eastern Europe

Bohemia

The

Bolesław I of Poland, inflicted upon Duke Boleslaus III, Oldřich's brother, thirty years before.[55][60]

Poland did not stabilize in the wake of Mieszko's exile, forcing Conrad to convene an assembly in July 1033 to issue the Treaty of Merseburg which restored Mieszko to the Polish throne. Conrad summoned Oldřich to appear at the assembly, but Oldřich refused. His absence raised the ire of the Emperor; Conrad, busy with securing his succession to the Burgundian throne, charged his son Duke Henry of Bavaria with punishing the recalcitrant Bohemian. At age 17, Henry's march on Bohemia was his first independent military command. The expedition was a complete success, as Henry deposed Oldřich and restored his brother Jaromír to the Bohemian throne. Oldřich's son Bretislaus I was appointed as Count of Moravia. Oldřich himself was imprisoned in Bavaria, but in 1034 was pardoned and allowed to return to Bohemia.[61] Oldřich deposed and blinded Jaromír, reclaimed the Bohemian throne, and exiled his son Bretislaus. While the reason for the conflict between father and son has been lost, it is assumed Bretislaus had supported Jaromír over his father. However, Oldřich died suddenly on 9 November 1034, allowing Bretislaus to return from exile. Though Jaromír was offered the throne, he declined in favour of his nephew. Bretislaus was then confirmed as the new Duke of Bohemia by Conrad II.[62]

Hungary

Stephen as depicted on the coronation pall

With emperor Otto III's approval, Stephen was crowned as the first Christian

Emperor Henry II, was Stephen's brother-in-law by Stephen's marriage to Henry's sister Gisela, furthering the friendly relationship between the Empire and Hungary. Under Conrad II, however, relations quickly turned hostile as Conrad pursued a more aggressive policy regarding eastern Europe.[64] Conrad II expelled the Venetian doge Otto Orseolo, the husband of Stephen's sister Grimelda of Hungary from Venice in 1026.[64][65] Conrad also persuaded the Bavarians to accept his own infant son, Henry, as their duke in 1027, although Stephen's son, Emeric of Hungary, had a legitimate claim to the Duchy of Bavaria through his mother.[66]

Emperor Conrad planned a marriage alliance with the

Lajta and Fischa rivers to the Hungarian nobility. Hungary and the Empire remained at peace from 1031 to Henry's own reign as Emperor in 1040.[71]

Conquest of Burgundy

In 1016 King

Odo II of Blois, who had strong family ties with Rudolph, also claimed the succession. Conrad II met Rudolph III in August 1027 near Basel to settle the dispute. Henry II's widowed wife, Empress Cunigunde of Luxembourg, mediated between the two parties.[73] An agreement was reached that allowed Conrad II to succeed to the Burgundian throne upon Rudolph's death under the same conditions as Henry II. In return, Rudolph was allowed to retain independent rule over his kingdom.[73]

Rudolph died on 6 September 1032, while Conrad was on campaign against Duke

Mieszko II of Poland. Upon Mieszko's surrender, Conrad marched his army to Burgundy during the winter of 1032/1033. Conrad's rival to the Burgundian throne, Count Odo II of Blois had already invaded the kingdom to secure his rule and controlled large sections of the kingdom's western territories.[74] On 2 February 1033, Conrad arrived at Vaud, where he held an assembly at the Abbey of Payerne and was crowned King of Burgundy.[75] Initially, Conrad made little progress against Odo and had to withdraw to Zürich in March.[75] In two large-scale military summer campaigns in 1033 and 1034, Conrad defeated Odo.[76] On 1 August 1034, Conrad officially incorporated Burgundy into the Holy Roman Empire at a ceremony held in the Cathedral of Geneva.[76]

Though Burgundy had been brought under full imperial control, the kingdom was allowed a remarkable degree of autonomy. Conrad rarely intervened in its affairs following his coronation, returning only in 1038 to announce his son Henry as the kingdom's future ruler. Crucially, the conquest of Burgundy augmented the influence and dignity of the Emperor to the benefit of the Empire. With Burgundy secured, Conrad controlled the western Alpine passes into Italy and could easily block foreign invasions.[77]

Politics

Conrad II, 12th-century stained glass window, Strasbourg Cathedral

Conrad formally confirmed the popular

legal traditions of Saxony and issued new constitutions for Lombardy. In 1028 at Aachen, he had his son Henry elected and anointed king of Germany. Henry married Gunhilda of Denmark, daughter of King Cnut the Great of England, Denmark and Norway by Emma of Normandy. This was an arrangement that Conrad had made many years prior when he gave Canute parts of northern Germany to administer.[78] Henry, who would later become Emperor Henry III
, became his father's chief counselor.

When King

King of France
. (Most of the former Kingdom of Burgundy/Arles was incorporated into France piecemeal over the next centuries, but "King of Burgundy" remained one of the Holy Roman Emperor's subsidiary titles until the dissolution of the Empire in 1806.)

Conrad upheld the rights of the valvassores (knights and burghers of the cities) of Italy against Archbishop Aribert of Milan and the local nobles. The nobles, as vassal lords, and the bishop had conspired to rescind rights from the burghers. Conrad restored order with skilful diplomacy and luck.[10]

Late life

Securing the imperial succession

On 14 January 1040, Conrad II's heir Henry issued a charter, in which he announced his official designation as Rex romanorum ("King of the Romans"), thus effectively elevating the traditional Frankish kingship to Imperial authority. This was the exclusive method for claiming the office of Holy Roman Emperor.[13][32]

Second Italian expedition

In 1038, Prince

Mezzogiorno firmly in Guaimar's hands and loyal, for once, to the Holy Roman Empire.[6][13]

Death

Conrad II's tomb in the Speyer Cathedral

On the return to Germany, a severe epidemic decimated the ranks of Conrad's troops; Conrad's daughter-in-law and stepson also died. Conrad himself returned home safely and held court on important occasions in Solothurn, Strasbourg and Goslar. His son Henry was invested with the duchies of Swabia and Carinthia.[79]

A year later in 1039 Conrad fell ill and died of

Salian emperors.[82]
During a major excavation in 1900 his sarcophagus was relocated from his original resting place in front of the altar to the crypt, where it is still visible today.

A biography of Conrad II in chronicle form, Gesta Chuonradi II imperatoris, was written by his chaplain Wipo of Burgundy, and presented to Henry III in 1046, not long after he was crowned.[10][83]

Cultural depictions of Conrad II

Main article: Cultural depictions of Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor

Family and children

See also: Family tree of German monarchs

Conrad married Gisela of Swabia in 1016, the daughter of Duke Herman II of Swabia. They had three children:

References

  1. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 18.
  2. ^ a b c Weinfurter 1999, p. 49.
  3. ^ Weinfurter 1999, pp. 26.
  4. ^ Wolfram 2010, p. 322.
  5. ^ Weinfurter 1999, pp. 45–47.
  6. ^ a b c d e Robert Houghton (24 July 2017). "Boniface of Canossa and the Emperor Conrad III". Storicamente. 13. Academiaa. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
  7. ISBN 0-8122-1386-6
    .
  8. ^ "Konrad II". Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
  9. ISBN 978-1-351-90055-3
    .
  10. ^
    ISBN 978-3-8438-0474-5
    .
  11. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 32.
  12. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 35.
  13. ^ a b c d e Peter Munz. "Conrad II Holy Roman emperor". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2 April 2020.
  14. ^ "Germany", Martin Volkl, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, Volume 2, ed. Clifford J. Rogers, (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 171. [ISBN missing]
  15. ^ "Archbishop Aribo di Magonza". Catholic-Hierarchy. 24 July 2017. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
  16. ^ a b c Bernhardt 2002, p. 311.
  17. ^ a b c d e Schutz 2010, pp. 115–.
  18. ^ a b Heer 1968, p. 51.
  19. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 97.
  20. ^ Weinfurter 1999, p. 22–.
  21. ^ Gerhard Lubich. "Heinrich V. in seiner Zeit" (PDF). Regesta. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
  22. ^ Otto zu Stolberg-Wernigerode. "Gisela". Neue deutsche Biographie. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
  23. ^
    ISBN 978-0-271-04818-5
    .
  24. ISBN 978-0-521-52467-4
    .
  25. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 75.
  26. ^ Bury 1922, p. 264.
  27. ^ a b Schutz 2010, p. 117.
  28. ^ Sydney Morgan-Owenson (1821). Italy. H. Colburn. pp. 200–.
  29. ISBN 0-691-10227-9
    .
  30. ^
    ISBN 978-1-317-02419-4
    .
  31. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 102.
  32. ^ a b Weinfurter 1999, p. 28–.
  33. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 114.
  34. ^ Györffy 1994, p. 140.
  35. ^ Makk 2001, p. 45.
  36. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 84.
  37. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 88.
  38. S2CID 159994750
    . Retrieved 27 January 2020.
  39. ISBN 978-0-521-31980-5
    .
  40. ISBN 978-0-521-52183-3
    .
  41. ^ Knefelkamp 2002, p. 125.
  42. ^ Previté-Orton 1912, p. 451.
  43. JSTOR 25779841
    .
  44. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 209.
  45. ^ "Herzog Mieszko II. Lambert Piast". Geni. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
  46. ^ Eckhard Freise. "Mathilde von Schwaben". Neue deutsche Biographie. Archived from the original on 1 July 2013. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
  47. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 215.
  48. ISBN 0-8014-3890-X
    .
  49. ^ Lübke 2002, p. 99.
  50. ISBN 9783640048069
    . Retrieved 3 April 2020.
  51. ISBN 9789004205642
    . Retrieved 3 April 2020.
  52. ^ Joachim Herrmann (1985). Die Slawen in Deutschland: Geschichte und Kultur der slawischen Stämme westlich von Oder und Neisse vom 6. bis 12. Jahrhundert. Akademie-Verlag.
  53. ^ a b Boshof 2008, p. 71.
  54. ^ "Mieszko II Lambert King of Poland". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
  55. ^
    S2CID 159636093
    .
  56. ISBN 978-0-521-36447-8
    .
  57. ^ Janet Martin (1 October 1997). "Medieval Russia 980–1584". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
  58. ^ a b Knefelkamp 2002, p. 137.
  59. ^ a b Boshof 2008, p. 72.
  60. ISBN 978-0-8132-1570-9
    .
  61. ISBN 978-0-8122-0422-3
    .
  62. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 227.
  63. ^ Engel 2001, p. 28.
  64. ^ a b Lenkey 2003, p. 90.
  65. ^ Györffy 1994, p. 148.
  66. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 187.
  67. ^ a b Butler, Cumming & Burns 1998, p. 159.
  68. ^ a b Wolfram 2006, pp. 197–198.
  69. ^ Györffy 1994, p. 149.
  70. ^ Kristó 2003, p. 74.
  71. ^ Györffy 1994, pp. 149–150.
  72. ^ Previté-Orton 1912, p. 16.
  73. ^ a b Previté-Orton 1912, p. 27.
  74. ^ Previté-Orton 1912, p. 30.
  75. ^ a b Previté-Orton 1912, p. 32.
  76. ^ a b Previté-Orton 1912, p. 33–36.
  77. ^ Previté-Orton 1912, p. 40.
  78. ISBN 978-0-300-20833-7
    .
  79. ^ North 2001, p. 143.
  80. ^ Wolfram 2006, p. 345.
  81. ^ Wolfram 2006, pp. 345–346.
  82. ISBN 978-1-85799-367-7
    .
  83. ^ "Gesta Chuonradi imperatoris - (Taten Kaiser Konrads)". Geschichtsquellen. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
  84. ^ Heer 1968, p. 52.

Sources

Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor
Born: c 990 Died: 1039
Regnal titles
Vacant
Title last held by
Henry the Saint
King of Germany
1024–1039
with Henry III
(1028–1039) 		Succeeded by
Holy Roman Emperor
1027–1039 		Vacant
Title next held by
Henry the Black
King of Italy
1027–1039
Preceded by
Rudolph the Pious
King of Burgundy
1032–1039
with Henry the Black
(1038–1039)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conrad_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&oldid=1218875485"