Conservation movement
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The conservation movement, also known as nature conservation, is a political, environmental, and social movement that seeks to manage and protect natural resources, including animal, fungus, and plant species as well as their habitat for the future. Conservationists are concerned with leaving the environment in a better state than the condition they found it in.[1] Evidence-based conservation seeks to use high quality scientific evidence to make conservation efforts more effective.
The early conservation movement evolved out of necessity to maintain natural resources such as
History
Early history
The conservation movement can be traced back to John Evelyn's work Sylva, presented as a paper to the Royal Society in 1662. Published as a book two years later, it was one of the most highly influential texts on forestry ever published.[3] Timbre resources in England were becoming dangerously depleted at the time, and Evelyn advocated the importance of conserving the forests by managing the rate of depletion and ensuring that the cut down trees get replenished.
The field developed during the 18th century, especially in
Concerns over teak depletion were raised as early as 1799 and 1805 when the Navy was undergoing a massive expansion during the
This promising start received a setback in the 1820s and 30s, when laissez-faire economics and complaints from private landowners brought these early conservation attempts to an end.
In 1837, American poet George Pope Morris published "Woodman, Spare that Tree!", a Romantic poem urging a lumberjack to avoid an oak tree that has sentimental value. The poem was set to music later that year by Henry Russell. Lines from the song have been quoted by environmentalists.[5]
Origins of the modern conservation movement
Conservation was revived in the mid-19th century, with the first practical application of scientific conservation principles to the forests of India. The conservation ethic that began to evolve included three core principles: that human activity damaged the
These local attempts gradually received more attention by the British government as the unregulated felling of trees continued unabated. In 1850, the
He had become interested in
Sir
Germans were prominent in the forestry administration of British India. As well as Brandis,
Conservation in the United States
The American movement received its inspiration from 19th century works that exalted the inherent value of nature, quite apart from human usage. Author
Both conservationists and preservationists appeared in political debates during the Progressive Era (the 1890s–early 1920s). There were three main positions.
- Laissez-faire: The laissez-faire position held that owners of private property—including lumber and mining companies, should be allowed to do anything they wished on their properties.[18]
- Conservationists: The conservationists, led by future President Theodore Roosevelt and his close ally George Bird Grinnell, were motivated by the wanton waste that was taking place at the hand of market forces, including logging and hunting.[19] This practice resulted in placing a large number of North American game species on the edge of extinction. Roosevelt recognized that the laissez-faire approach of the U.S. Government was too wasteful and inefficient. In any case, they noted, most of the natural resources in the western states were already owned by the federal government. The best course of action, they argued, was a long-term plan devised by national experts to maximize the long-term economic benefits of natural resources. To accomplish the mission, Roosevelt and Grinnell formed the Boone and Crockett Club, whose members were some of the best minds and influential men of the day. Its contingency of conservationists, scientists, politicians, and intellectuals became Roosevelt's closest advisers during his march to preserve wildlife and habitat across North America.[20]
- Preservationists: Preservationists, led by John Muir (1838–1914), argued that the conservation policies were not strong enough to protect the interest of the natural world because they continued to focus on the natural world as a source of economic production.
The debate between conservation and preservation reached its peak in the public debates over the construction of California's Hetch Hetchy dam in Yosemite National Park which supplies the water supply of San Francisco. Muir, leading the Sierra Club, declared that the valley must be preserved for the sake of its beauty: "No holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man."
President
Roosevelt established the
Gifford Pinchot had been appointed by McKinley as chief of Division of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture. In 1905, his department gained control of the national forest reserves. Pinchot promoted private use (for a fee) under federal supervision. In 1907, Roosevelt designated 16 million acres (65,000 km2) of new national forests just minutes before a deadline.[23]
In May 1908, Roosevelt sponsored the Conference of Governors held in the White House, with a focus on natural resources and their most efficient use. Roosevelt delivered the opening address: "Conservation as a National Duty".
In 1903 Roosevelt toured the Yosemite Valley with John Muir, who had a very different view of conservation, and tried to minimize commercial use of water resources and forests. Working through the Sierra Club he founded, Muir succeeded in 1905 in having Congress transfer the Mariposa Grove and Yosemite Valley to the federal government.[24] While Muir wanted nature preserved for its own sake, Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's formulation, "to make the forest produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on producing it for generation after generation of men and trees."[25]
Theodore Roosevelt's view on conservationism remained dominant for decades; Franklin D. Roosevelt authorised the building of many large-scale dams and water projects, as well as the expansion of the National Forest System to buy out sub-marginal farms. In 1937, the Pittman–Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act was signed into law, providing funding for state agencies to carry out their conservation efforts.
Since 1970
Environmental reemerged on the national agenda in 1970, with Republican
The growth of the Republican party's political power in the inland West (apart from the Pacific coast) was facilitated by the rise of popular opposition to public lands reform. Successful Democrats in the inland West and Alaska typically take more conservative positions on environmental issues than Democrats from the Coastal states. Conservatives drew on new organizational networks of think tanks, industry groups, and citizen-oriented organizations, and they began to deploy new strategies that affirmed the rights of individuals to their property, protection of extraction rights, to hunt and recreate, and to pursue happiness unencumbered by the federal government at the expense of resource conservation.[26]
In 2019, convivial conservation was an idea proposed by Bram Büscher and Robert Fletcher. Convivial conservation draws on social movements and concepts like environmental justice and structural change to create a post-capitalist approach to conservation.[27] Convivial conservation rejects both human-nature dichotomies and capitalistic political economies. Built on a politics of equity, structural change and environmental justice, convivial conservation is considered a radical theory as it focuses on the structural political-economy of modern nation states and the need to create structural change.[28] Convivial conservation creates a more integrated approach which reconfigures the nature-human configuration to create a world in which humans are recognized as a part of nature. The emphasis on nature as for and by humans creates a human responsibility to care for the environment as a way of caring for themselves. It also redefines nature as not only being pristine and untouched, but cultivated by humans in everyday formats. The theory is a long term process of structural change to move away from capitalist valuation in favor of a system emphasizing everyday and local living.[28] Convivial conservation creates a nature which includes humans rather than excluding them from the necessity of conservation. While other conservation theories integrate some of the elements of convivial conservation, none move away from both dichotomies and capitalist valuation principles.
The five elements of convivial conservation
Source:[28]
- The promotion of nature for, to and by humans
- The movement away from the concept of conservation as saving only nonhuman nature
- Emphasis on the long-term democratic engagement with nature rather than elite access and tourism,
- The movement away from the spectacle of nature and instead focusing on the mundane ‘everyday nature’
- The democratic management of nature, with nature as commons and in context
Racism and the Conservation Movement
The early years of the environmental and conservation movements were rooted in the safeguarding of game to support the recreation activities of elite white men, such as hunting.[29] This led to an economy to support and perpetuate these activities as well as the continued wilderness conservation to support the corporate interests supplying the hunters with the equipment needed for their sport.[29] Game parks in England and the United States allowed wealthy hunters and fishermen to deplete wildlife, while hunting by Indigenous groups, laborers and the working class, and poor citizens--especially for the express use of sustenance--was vigorously monitored.[29] Scholars have shown that the establishment of the U.S. national parks, while setting aside land for preservation, was also a continuation of preserving the land for the recreation and enjoyment of elite white hunters and nature enthusiasts.[29]
While Theodore Roosevelt was one of the leading activists for the conservation movement in the United States, he also believed that the threats to the natural world were equally threats to white Americans. Roosevelt and his contemporaries held the belief that the cities, industries and factories that were overtaking the wilderness and threatening the native plants and animals were also consuming and threatening the racial vigor that they believed white Americans held which made them superior.[30] Roosevelt was a big believer that white male virility depended on wildlife for its vigor, and that, consequently, depleting wildlife would result in a racially weaker nation.[30] This lead Roosevelt to support the passing of many immigration restrictions, eugenics legislations and wildlife preservation laws.[30] For instance, Roosevelt established the first national parks through the Antiquities Act of 1906 while also endorsing the removal of Indigenous Americans from their tribal lands within the parks.[31] This move was promoted and endorsed by other leaders of the conservation movement, including Frederick Law Olmsted, a leading landscape architect, conservationist, and supporter of the national park system, and Gifford Pinchot, a leading eugenicist and conservationist.[31] Furthering the economic exploitation of the environment and national parks for wealthy whites was the beginning of ecotourism in the parks, which included allowing some Indigenous Americans to remain so that the tourists could get what was to be considered the full "wilderness experience".[32]
Another long-term supporter, partner, and inspiration to Roosevelt, Madison Grant was a well known American eugenicist and conservationist.[30] Grant worked alongside Roosevelt in the American conservation movement and was even secretary and president of the Boone and Crockett Club.[33] In 1916, Grant published the book "The Passing of the Great Race, or The Racial Basis of European History", which based its premise on eugenics and outlined a hierarchy of races, with white, "Nordic" men at the top, and all other races below.[33] The German translation of this book was used by Nazi Germany as the source for many of their beliefs[33] and was even proclaimed by Hitler to be his "Bible".[31]
One of the first established conservation agencies in the United States is the National Audubon Society. Founded in 1905, its priority was to protect and conserve various waterbird species.[34] However, the first state-level Audubon group was created in 1896 by Harriet Hemenway and Minna B. Hall to convince women to refrain from buying hats made with bird feathers- a common practice at the time.[34] The organization is named after John Audubon, a naturalist and legendary bird painter.[35] Audubon was also a slaveholder who also included many racist tales in his books.[35] Despite his views of racial inequality, Audubon did find black and Indigenous people to be scientifically useful, often using their local knowledge in his books and relying on them to collect specimens for him.[35]
The ideology of the conservation movement in Germany paralleled that of the U.S. and England.[36] Early German naturalists of the 20th century turned to the wilderness to escape the industrialization of cities. However, many of these early conservationists became part of and influenced the Nazi party. Like elite and influential Americans of the early 20th century, they embraced eugenics and racism and promoted the idea that Nordic people are superior.[36]
Conservation in Costa Rica
Although the conservation movement developed in Europe in the 18th century, Costa Rica as a country has been heralded its champion in the current times.[37] Costa Rica hosts an astonishing number of species, given its size, having more animal and plant species than the US and Canada combined[38] hosting over 500,000 species of plants and animals. Despite this, Costa Rica is only 250 miles long and 150 miles wide. A widely accepted theory for the origin of this unusual density of species is the free mixing of species from both North and South America occurring on this "inter-oceanic" and "inter-continental" landscape.[38] Preserving the natural environment of this fragile landscape, therefore, has drawn the attention of many international scholars and scientists.
Costa Rica has made conservation a national priority, and has been at the forefront of preserving its natural environment with 28% of its land protected in the form of national parks, reserves, and wildlife refuges, which is under the administrative control of
World Wide Fund for Nature
You know, when we first set up WWF, our objective was to save endangered species from extinction. But we have failed completely; we haven't managed to save a single one. If only we had put all that money into condoms, we might have done some good.
—Sir Peter Scott, Founder of the World Wide Fund for Nature, Cosmos Magazine, 2010[41]
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961, working in the field of the wilderness preservation, and the reduction of human impact on the environment.[42] It was formerly named the "World Wildlife Fund", which remains its official name in Canada and the United States.[42]
WWF is the world's largest
WWF aims to "stop the degradation of the planet's natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature."
"Conservation Far" approach
Institutions such as the WWF have historically been the cause of the displacement and divide between Indigenous populations and the lands they inhabit. The reason is because of the organization's historically colonial, paternalistic, and neoliberal approaches to conservation. Claus, in her article "Drawing the Sea Near: Satoumi and Coral Reef Conservation in Okinawa", expands on this approach, called "conservation far", in which access to lands is open to external foreign entities, such as researchers and/or tourists, but prohibited to local populations. The conservation initiatives are therefore taking place "far" away. This entity is largely unaware of the customs and values held by those within the territory surrounding nature and their role within it.[48]
"Conservation Near" Approach
In Japan, the town of Shiraho had traditional ways of tending to nature that were lost due to colonization and militarization by the United States. The return to traditional sustainability practices constituted a “conservation near” approach. This engages those near in proximity to the lands in the conservation efforts.and holds them accountable for their direct effects on its preservation. While conservation-far drills visuals and sight as being the main interaction medium between people and the environment, conservation near includes a hands-on, full sensory experience permitted by conservation-near methodologies.[48] An emphasis on observation only stems from a deeper association with intellect and observation. The alternative to this is more of a bodily or "primitive" consciousness, which is associated with lower-intelligence and people of color. A new, integrated approach to conservation is being investigated in recent years by institutions such as WWF.[48] The socionatural relationships centered on the interactions based in reciprocity and empathy, making conservation efforts being accountable to the local community and ways of life, changing in response to values, ideals, and beliefs of the locals. Japanese seascapes are often integral to the identity of the residents and includes historical memories and spiritual engagements which need to be recognized and considered.[48] The involvement of communities gives residents a stake in the issue, leading to a long-term solution which emphasizes sustainable resource usage and the empowerment of the communities. Conservation efforts are able to take into consideration cultural values rather than the foreign ideals that are often imposed by foreign activists.
Evidence-based conservation
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Evidence-based practices |
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Evidence-based conservation was organized based on the observations that decision making in conservation was based on intuition and or practitioner experience often disregarding other forms of evidence of successes and failures (e.g. scientific information). This has led to costly and poor outcomes.[50] Evidence-based conservation provides access to information that will support decision making through an evidence-based framework of "what works" in conservation.[51]
The evidence-based approach to conservation is based on evidence-based practice which started inAreas of concern
Deforestation and overpopulation are issues affecting all regions of the world. The consequent destruction of wildlife habitat has prompted the creation of conservation groups in other countries, some founded by local hunters who have witnessed declining wildlife populations first hand. Also, it was highly important for the conservation movement to solve problems of living conditions in the cities and the overpopulation of such places.
Boreal forest and the Arctic
The idea of incentive conservation is a modern one but its practice has clearly defended some of the sub Arctic wildernesses and the wildlife in those regions for thousands of years, especially by indigenous peoples such as the Evenk, Yakut, Sami, Inuit and Cree. The fur trade and hunting by these peoples have preserved these regions for thousands of years. Ironically, the pressure now upon them comes from non-renewable resources such as oil, sometimes to make synthetic clothing which is advocated as a humane substitute for fur. (See
Latin America (Bolivia)
The
Africa (Botswana)
In order to discourage illegal South African hunting parties and ensure future local use and sustainability, indigenous hunters in Botswana began lobbying for and implementing conservation practices in the 1960s. The Fauna Preservation Society of Ngamiland (FPS) was formed in 1962 by the husband and wife team: Robert Kay and June Kay, environmentalists working in conjunction with the Batawana tribes to preserve wildlife habitat.
The FPS promotes habitat conservation and provides local education for preservation of wildlife. Conservation initiatives were met with strong opposition from the Botswana government because of the monies tied to big-game hunting. In 1963, BaTawanga Chiefs and tribal hunter/adventurers in conjunction with the FPS founded
See also
- Australian Grains Genebank
- Conservation biology
- Conservation ethic
- Ecology
- Ecology movement
- Energy conservation
- Environmental history
- Environmental movement
- Environmental protection
- Environmentalism
- Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850–1920
- Factor 10
- Forest protection
- Habitat conservation
- List of environmental organizations
- List of environment topics
- Marine conservation
- Natural environment
- Natural landscape
- Soil conservation
- Sustainability
- U.S. National Park Service
- Water conservation
- Wetland conservation
- Wildlife conservation
- Wildlife management
References
- ^ Harding, Russ. "Conservationist or Environmentalist?". Mackinac Center for Public Policy. Archived from the original on 2008-12-03. Retrieved 2021-05-02.
- ASIN B0006EUXGQ.
- ^ John Evelyn, Sylva, Or A Discourse of Forest Trees ... with an Essay on the Life and Works of the Author by John Nisbet, Fourth Edition (1706), reprinted London: Doubleday & Co., 1908, V1, p. lxv; online edn, March 2007 [1], accessed 29 Dec 2012. This source (John Nisbet) states: "There can be no doubt that John Evelyn, both during his own lifetime and throughout the two centuries which have elapsed since his death in 1706, has exerted more individual influence, through his charming Sylva, ... than can be ascribed to any other individual." Nisbet adds that "Evelyn was by no means the first [author] who wrote on [forestry]. That honour belongs to Master Fitzherbert, whose Boke of Husbandrie was published in 1534" (V1, p. lxvi).
- ^ "History of forests in India". Archived from the original on 2018-09-04. Retrieved 2013-10-13.
- )
- ^ Stebbing, E.P (1922)The forests of India vol. 1, pp. 72-81
- ISBN 9781139434607.
- ^ MUTHIAH, S. (Nov 5, 2007). "A life for forestry". The Hindu. Archived from the original on November 8, 2007. Retrieved 2009-03-09.
- OCLC 301345427.
- ^ Oliver, J.W. (1901). "Forestry in India". The Indian Forester. Vol. v.27 (Original from Harvard University, Digitized Apr 4, 2008 ed.). Allahabad: R. P. Sharma, Business Manager, Indian Forester. pp. 617–623.
- ^ King KFS (1968). "Agro-silviculture (the taungya system)". University of Ibadan / Dept. of Forestry, Bulletin no. 1, 109
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- ^ Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India (1993)
- ^ Burley, Jeffery, et al. 2009. "A History of Forestry at Oxford", British Scholar, Vol. 1, No. 2., pp.236-261. Accessed: May 6, 2012.
- OCLC 1189910652, retrieved 2022-02-26
- ^ America has been the context for both the origins of conservation history and its modern form, environmental history Archived 2012-03-13 at the Wayback Machine. Asiaticsociety.org.bd. Retrieved on 2011-09-01.
- ISBN 9788185182780.
- ^ Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (1959)
- ^ Benjamin Redekop, "Embodying the Story: The Conservation Leadership of Theodore Roosevelt" in Leadership (2015). DOI: 10.1177/1742715014546875. online Archived 2016-01-14 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Archives of the Boone and Crockett Club".
- ^ Douglas G. Brinkley, The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America (2009)
- ^ W. Todd Benson, President Theodore Roosevelt's Conservations Legacy (2003)
- ^ Char Miller, Seeking the Greatest Good: The Conservation Legacy of Gifford Pinchot (2013)
- ^ "U.S. Statutes at Large, Vol. 26, Chap. 1263, pp. 650-52. "An act to set apart certain tracts of land in the State of California as forest reservations." [H.R. 12187]". Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850-1920. Library of Congress.
- ^ Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, (1947) p. 32.
- ^ * Turner, James Morton, "The Specter of Environmentalism": Wilderness, Environmental Politics, and the Evolution of the New Right. The Journal of American History 96.1 (2009): 123-47 online at History Cooperative Archived 2009-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 978-0-8165-9885-4.
- ^ a b c Büscher, B. and Fletcher, R., 2019. Towards convivial conservation. Conservation & Society, 17(3), pp.283-296.
- ^ ISSN 0008-4107.
- ^ OCLC 973532814.
- ^ a b c Purdy, Jedediah (August 13, 2015). "Environmentalism's Racist History". The New Yorker.
- ISSN 1084-5453.
- ^ )
- ^ a b "The History of Audubon". Audubon. 2015-01-09. Retrieved 2022-03-29.
- ^ a b c "The Myth of John James Audubon". Audubon. 2020-07-31. Retrieved 2022-03-29.
- ^ ISSN 0960-7773.
- ^ Watts, Jonathan (2010-10-25). "Costa Rica recognised for biodiversity protection". The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-06-09.
- ^ ISBN 9780292789289.
- ^ "Estado de la Biodiversidad en Costa Rica". inbio.ac.cr. Archived from the original on 2010-03-01. Retrieved 2018-06-07.
- ^ "Costa Rica runs entirely on renewable energy for 300 days this year". The Independent. Retrieved 2018-06-07.
- Cosmos. 13 May 2010. Archived from the originalon 6 November 2016.
- ^ ISSN 0006-3207.
- ^ "WWF conservation projects around the world".
- ^ a b "WWF - Endangered Species Conservation". World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 18 April 2018.
- ^ "How is WWF run?". Retrieved 21 July 2011.
- ^ WWFN-International Annual Review (PDF). World Wide Fund for Nature. 2014. p. 37. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
- ^ "WWF's Mission, Guiding Principles and Goals". WWF. Archived from the original on 2019-01-13. Retrieved 2019-01-13.
- ^ OCLC 1156432505.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ "The Basics". Conservation Evidence. Retrieved 2015-03-07.
- PMID 16701275.
- .
- ^ "Inuit Ask Europeans to Support Its Seal Hunt and Way of Life" (PDF). 6 March 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 June 2007. Retrieved 12 July 2007.
Further reading
World
- Barton, Gregory A. Empire, Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism, (2002), covers British Empire
- Clover, Charles. The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat. (2004) Ebury Press, London. ISBN 0-09-189780-7
- Haq, Gary, and Alistair Paul. Environmentalism since 1945 (Routledge, 2013).
- Jones, Eric L. "The History of Natural Resource Exploitation in the Western World," Research in Economic History, 1991 Supplement 6, pp 235–252
- McNeill, John R. Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth Century (2000).
Regional studies
Africa
- Adams, Jonathan S.; McShane, Thomas O. Myth of Wild Africa: Conservation without Illusion (1992) 266p; covers 1900 to 1980s
- Anderson, David; Grove, Richard. Conservation in Africa: People, Policies & Practice (1988), 355pp
- Bolaane, Maitseo. "Chiefs, Hunters & Adventurers: The Foundation of the Okavango/Moremi National Park, Botswana". Journal of Historical Geography. 31.2 (Apr. 2005): 241–259.
- Carruthers, Jane. "Africa: Histories, Ecologies, and Societies," Environment and History, 10 (2004), pp. 379–406;
- Showers, Kate B. Imperial Gullies: Soil Erosion and Conservation in Lesotho (2005) 346pp
Asia-Pacific
- Bolton, Geoffrey. Spoils and Spoilers: Australians Make Their Environment, 1788-1980 (1981) 197pp
- Economy, Elizabeth. The River Runs Black: The Environmental Challenge to China's Future (2010)
- Elvin, Mark. The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China (2006)
- Grove, Richard H.; Damodaran, Vinita Jain; Sangwan, Satpal. Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia (1998) 1036pp
- Johnson, Erik W., Saito, Yoshitaka, and Nishikido, Makoto. "Organizational Demography of Japanese Environmentalism," Sociological Inquiry, Nov 2009, Vol. 79 Issue 4, pp 481–504
- Thapar, Valmik. Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent (1998) 288pp
Latin America
- Boyer, Christopher. Political Landscapes: Forests, Conservation, and Community in Mexico. Duke University Press (2015)
- Dean, Warren. With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (1997)
- Evans, S. The Green Republic: A Conservation History of Costa Rica. University of Texas Press. (1999)
- Funes Monzote, Reinaldo. From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History since 1492 (2008)
- Melville, Elinor G. K. A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico (1994)
- Miller, Shawn William. An Environmental History of Latin America (2007)
- Noss, Andrew and Imke Oetting. "Hunter Self-Monitoring by the Izoceño -Guarani in the Bolivian Chaco". Biodiversity & Conservation. 14.11 (2005): 2679–2693.
- Simonian, Lane. Defending the Land of the Jaguar: A History of Conservation in Mexico (1995) 326pp
- Wakild, Emily. An Unexpected Environment: National Park Creation, Resource Custodianship, and the Mexican Revolution. University of Arizona Press (2011).
Europe and Russia
- Arnone Sipari, Lorenzo, Scritti scelti di Erminio Sipari sul Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo (1922–1933) (2011), 360pp.
- Barca, Stefania, and Ana Delicado. "Anti-nuclear mobilisation and environmentalism in Europe: A view from Portugal (1976–1986)." Environment and History 22.4 (2016): 497–520. online[dead link]
- Bonhomme, Brian. Forests, Peasants and Revolutionaries: Forest Conservation & Organization in Soviet Russia, 1917–1929 (2005) 252pp.
- Cioc, Mark. The Rhine: An Eco-Biography, 1815–2000 (2002).
- Dryzek, John S., et al. Green states and social movements: environmentalism in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, and Norway (Oxford UP, 2003).
- Jehlicka, Petr. "Environmentalism in Europe: an east-west comparison." in Social change and political transformation (Routledge, 2018) pp. 112–131.
- Simmons, I.G. An Environmental History of Great Britain: From 10,000 Years Ago to the Present (2001).
- Uekotter, Frank. The greenest nation?: A new history of German environmentalism (MIT Press, 2014).
- Weiner, Douglas R. Models of Nature: Ecology, Conservation and Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia (2000) 324pp; covers 1917 to 1939.
United States
- Bates, J. Leonard. "Fulfilling American Democracy: The Conservation Movement, 1907 to 1921", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, (1957), 44#1 pp. 29–57. in JSTOR
- Brinkley, Douglas G. The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America, (2009) excerpt and text search
- Cawley, R. McGreggor. Federal Land, Western Anger: The Sagebrush Rebellion and Environmental Politics (1993), on conservatives
- Flippen, J. Brooks. Nixon and the Environment (2000).
- Hays, Samuel P. Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955–1985 (1987), the standard scholarly history
- Hays, Samuel P. A History of Environmental Politics since 1945 (2000), shorter standard history
- Hays, Samuel P. Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (1959), on Progressive Era.
- King, Judson. The Conservation Fight, From Theodore Roosevelt to the Tennessee Valley Authority (2009)
- Nash, Roderick. Wilderness and the American Mind, (3rd ed. 1982), the standard intellectual history
- Pinchot, Gifford (1922). . Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.).
- Rothmun, Hal K. The Greening of a Nation? Environmentalism in the United States since 1945 (1998)
- Scheffer, Victor B. The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (1991).
- Sellers, Christopher. Crabgrass Crucible: Suburban Nature and the Rise of Environmentalism in Twentieth-Century America (2012)
- Strong, Douglas H. Dreamers & Defenders: American Conservationists. (1988) online edition Archived 2007-12-01 at the Wayback Machine, good biographical studies of the major leaders
- Taylor, Dorceta E. The Rise of the American Conservation Movement: Power, Privilege, and Environmental Protection (Duke U.P. 2016) x, 486 pp.
- Turner, James Morton, "The Specter of Environmentalism": Wilderness, Environmental Politics, and the Evolution of the New Right. The Journal of American History 96.1 (2009): 123-47 online at History Cooperative
- Vogel, David. California Greenin': How the Golden State Became an Environmental Leader (2018) 280 pp online review
Historiography
- Cioc, Mark, Björn-Ola Linnér, and Matt Osborn, "Environmental History Writing in Northern Europe," Environmental History, 5 (2000), pp. 396–406
- Bess, Michael, Mark Cioc, and James Sievert, "Environmental History Writing in Southern Europe," Environmental History, 5 (2000), pp. 545–56;
- Coates, Peter. "Emerging from the Wilderness (or, from Redwoods to Bananas): Recent Environmental History in the United States and the Rest of the Americas," Environment and History, 10 (2004), pp. 407–38
- Hay, Peter. Main Currents in Western Environmental Thought (2002), standard scholarly history excerpt and text search
- McNeill, John R. "Observations on the Nature and Culture of Environmental History," History and Theory, 42 (2003), pp. 5–43.
- Robin, Libby, and Tom Griffiths, "Environmental History in Australasia," Environment and History, 10 (2004), pp. 439–74
- Worster, Donald, ed. The Ends of the Earth: Perspectives on Modern Environmental History (1988)