Conservation of American bison

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Bison grazing in Yellowstone

The conservation of bison in North America is an ongoing, diverse effort to bring

true buffalo. Buffalo is commonly used as it continues to hold cultural significance, particularly for Indigenous people.[2]

Recovery began in the late 19th century with a handful of individuals independently saving the last surviving bison.# Dedicated restoration efforts in the 20th century bolstered bison numbers though they still exist in mostly small and isolated populations. Expansion of the understanding of bison ecology and management is ongoing. The contemporary widespread, collaborative effort includes attention to heritage genetics and minimal cattle introgression.#

Context

Bison once roamed across most of North America in numbers that reached into the tens of millions.[3] Before the 19th century, bison were a keystone species for the native shortgrass prairie habitat as their grazing pressure altered the food web and landscapes in ways that improve biodiversity.[4] The expanses of grass sustained migrations of an estimated 30 to 60 million American bison which could be found across much of North America.[5] While they ranged from the eastern seaboard states to southeast Washington, eastern Oregon, and northeastern California, the greatest numbers were found within the great bison belt on the shortgrass plains east of the Rocky Mountains that stretched from Alberta to Texas.[6]

The grasslands once included more than 1,500 species of plants, 350 birds, 220 butterflies, and 90 mammals.

coyotes, and cougars.[8][9] The bison scoring the trees with their horns kept them from taking over the open grasslands. As bison grazed, they dispersed seeds by excreting them.[7] The heterogeneous or varied landscape created by the roaming bison helps birds of which millions arrive each year. Long-billed curlews are a migratory shorebirds that rely on three types of habitats on the prairie – areas with short grass, long grass and mud – for completing their breeding cycle each year. Mountain plovers use bison wallows as nesting sites.[10] Prairie dogs benefited from the tendency of the bison to graze areas around prairie dog towns. The bison enjoyed the regrowth of plants previously cropped by the rodents which reduced the grass cover, making it easier to spot predators.[6] Bald eagles, ravens, black-billed magpies, swift foxes, golden eagles, grizzly bears, wolves, beetles, and nematodes benefited from bison carcasses.[11]

Such abundance made the bison a critical part of Native American culture for thousands of years: providing food as well as materials for clothing, shelter, tools, and more.

market hunters.[18] The transcontinental railroad was key in facilitating the large-scale hunting of bison along with the development of the repeating rifle. The rapid slaughter of bison also surged when a tanning method was developed that allowed the soft hide to be made into tougher, more desirable leather that was sent to an international market.[19]

Early efforts

In the late 1860s, private citizens independently began to capture and shelter bison.[20] In 1874, both houses of Congress passed H.R. 921, To prevent the useless slaughter of buffaloes within the territories of the United States, but President Ulysses S. Grant did not sign it, resulting in a pocket veto.[21] By the late 1880s, the great herds of bison that once dominated the landscape were nearly gone. As they suffered a severe population bottleneck, bison became a species of conservation concern and various efforts to preserve the species through protection and stewardship began.[22] The near decimation of the species unraveled fundamental ties between bison, grassland ecosystems, and Plains Indians’ cultures and livelihoods.[23] As hunting ceased and private citizens provided grazing land, their ability of bison to increase their numbers was evident.[24]: 86  As ranchers began to raise bison as livestock, they bred some of them with cattle.[25] These bison-cattle hybridization experiments failed and were not repeated.[26] Most of the bison available to establish conservation herds were from private herds resulting in cattle gene introgression being present in today's herds.[27] Bison were for all practical purposes ecologically extinct across its former range, with multiple consequences for grassland biodiversity.[3]

Oral accounts of the

Flathead Reservation. His stepfather, Samuel Walking Coyote, sold them to horse traders Michel Pablo and Charles Allard in 1884.[28] The Pablo-Allard herd grew when in 1896 Allard died and his half of the herd was dispersed as it was sold to ranchers. Pablo’s herd continued to grow and range wild along the Flathead River.[29] By the early 1900s, the Pablo-Allard herd was said to be the largest collection of the bison remaining in the U.S.[30] Pablo was notified in 1904 that the government was opening up the Flathead Reservation for settlement by selling off parcels of land.[31][32] After failed negotiations with the U.S. government, Pablo sold the herd to the Canadian government in 1907.[33]: 23  The transfer took until 1912, as the bison were captured and shipped by train from Ravalli, Montana, to Elk Island to establish a conservation herd.[34]

Bison grazing near Gibbon River at Madison in Yellowstone National Park.

Yellowstone National Park was established on March 1, 1872[35] where poaching of bison continued despite the presence of the First U.S. Cavalry soldiers at Fort Yellowstone to, in part, protect wildlife.[20] Bison dwindled to about two dozen animals that spent winter in Pelican Valley. In May 1894, Congress passed the Act to Protect the Birds and Animals in Yellowstone National Park, and to Punish Crimes in Said Park. Known as the Lacey Act of 1894, the law provided punishment for poaching on public lands, resolved jurisdictional issues and helped Yellowstone's managers to start recovering the bison population.[36] In 1902, they purchased 21 bison from private owners and raised them in Mammoth and then at the Lamar Buffalo Ranch.[18]

Several bison first lived on the

Sully’s Hill National Game Preserve and Fort Niobrara National Wildlife Refuge.[20]

The bison at Lamar Buffalo Ranch eventually began to mix with the free-roaming population in Yellowstone Park and by 1954, their numbers had grown to roughly 1,300 animals.[18] Bison reproduce and survive at relatively high rates compared to many other large, wild mammals, so even as the population recovered Yellowstone managers limited its growth with frequent culling. A moratorium on culling, that began in 1969, resulted in the bison population increasing dramatically.[18] Removals began again in 1991 and averaged 233 bison per year from 1991 through 2017 as wildlife officials tried to curb some of that rapid growth of 10 to 17 percent every year. Yearly guidelines were issued on how many bison should be removed.[43] Many slaughtered bison were provided to Native American Indian tribes, relief agencies and contract sales. Some live bison were shipped to zoos, reservations and other parks.[44]

Contemporary approach

Preservation of the species' wild character is essential to bison conservation and is an important management strategy for conservation herds. This includes maintaining a mix of age and sex classes and allowing bison to interact naturally with the ecosystem.[45] Conservation herds are in mostly small and isolated populations. Large herds on extensive landscapes where natural limiting factors are present with minimal human interaction are seen as the best method to achieve the full potential of bison.[17]: 2  Natural selection occurs when bison are subject to natural pressures that affect their life histories such as predation, harsh environmental conditions, and competition for mates and food.[46] The current strategy promotes having a minimum herd size of 1,000.[47] Expansion of the understanding of bison ecology and management is ongoing.[48]

A widespread, collaborative effort has led to the establishment of bison herds that include attention to heritage genetics and minimal cattle introgression.[49] Tribal, federal, state, and non-governmental organizations conservation herds are managed with a focus on protecting wild bison and preserving their genetic diversity. Breeding efforts and genetic testing are used to develop herds that are relatively free of any detectable genetic material that would have come from cross-breeding with cattle.[50] Scientific studies show that most bison conservation herds possess some small amounts of cattle genes.[27] While mitochondrial DNA can potentially influence the cellular physiology of bison, a large majority of heritable traits seen are coded by chromosomal DNA---the structure containing most of the DNA in an organism. The presence of both mitochondrial DNA and minimal levels of chromosomal DNA may have insignificant influence on the reproductive processes and phenotypic expression of a bison herd. Many of these herds with genetic diversity are considered valuable for the conservation of the species.[26] Brucellosis was first identified in Yellowstone bison in 1917 having been identified in domestic cattle in the United States in 1910. Introduced by European cattle, it infected wild elk and bison.[51] The potential spread of the disease is an impediment to the recovery efforts.[22] Other impediments include the nomadic behavior of wild herds, and legal jurisdiction.[22]

The development of

ecological balance.[52] Prairie ecosystems were maintained by a pattern of disturbance caused by natural wildfire and grazing by bison, a pattern which is called pyric herbivory
.

US Department of the Interior Bison Conservation Initiative

The

US Geological Survey, these DOI agencies promote bison conservation and shared stewardship.[48] The 2008 issuance of the Bison Conservation Initiative (BCI) chartered the DOI Bison Working Groupon (BWG), an interagency group comprising representatives of the National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Indian Affairs, and the U.S. Geological Survey.[53] The Bison Conservation Initiative (BCI) was updated and adopted in May 2020.[48] BWG, in conserving bison as wildlife, manages bison around principles and practices that maintain the wild character of bison, minimizes artificial selection, and allows forces of natural selection to operate, including competition for breeding.[54] Using a metapopulation management strategy maintains genetic diversity and integrity through an interagency, science-based approach to restore gene flow across DOI bison conservation herds.[55] The DOI works with conservation partners, states, tribes, nations, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), to maintain large, wide-ranging, multi-jurisdictional bison herds on appropriate large landscapes.[53]

Three free-ranging herds are managed by the National Park Service in the Grand Canyon, Grand Tetons, and Yellowstone national parks.[22] Yellowstone National Park is the only place in the United States where bison have lived continuously since prehistoric times.[56] The Grand Tetons and Yellowstone herds have minimal cattle gene introgression but are not disease-free. The Grand Canyon herd is disease free but has known cattle gene introgression.[22]

Many of the conservation herds overseen directly by the Interior Department are small and spatially-constrained with fences with only the slightest traces of cattle interbreeding. The herds that have 400 or fewer animals are prone to problems of inbreeding and genetic drift that reduce environmental adaptability due to limited transfers for interbreeding among distant herds according to a 2019 study commissioned by the National Park Service.[55]

Bison herds grow at a rate that rapidly outpaces the available habitat on DOI bison management units. Capture is periodically required to manage herd size and provides opportunities to donate live bison in support of partner conservation and restoration efforts. Low-stress handling practices reduce animal stress and increase safety for both bison and personnel during capture operations, while increasing overall alignment with the goal to manage bison as wildlife. BWG manages diseases in bison that may affect domestic livestock or other bison herds.[53] Wind Cave National Park introduced 20 bison in 1913–16 and is routinely culled down to approximately 425. Theodore Roosevelt National Park introduced 29 animals to a South Unit in 1956 and subsequently transferred 20 bison from that herd to the park's North Unit in 1962. They are routinely culled down to approximately 350 and 20 animals, respectively. Badlands National Park introduced 53 animals in 1963–64 and another 20 in 1984 and is routinely culled down to approximately 700.[53]

Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

The management of the

Yellowstone National Park herd shifted away from husbandry practices during the latter half of the 20th century to restoring wild behaviors and allowing bison to move freely within the park.[57][44] Only a few bull bison traversed outside Yellowstone National Park prior to 1975, but as bison numbers increased, groups of bison began migrating across the north and west boundaries of Yellowstone to expand their winter range and pioneer new territory in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Park and state wildlife officials went to great lengths to prevent bison from mixing with cattle.[18] Brucellosis is known to exist in the elk and bison of the Yellowstone ecosystem.[58] State and federal officials were pressured to prevent the spread of the disease as ranchers worry it could lead to Montana losing its brucellosis-free status.[59] Montana state law does not allow the transport of wild bison exposed to brucellosis except to meat processing and research facilities within the state.[60] State and federal officials rounded up most bison that wander outside the park every winter with up to 900 being removed annually.[61] Some were captured and shipped to slaughter while others were shot by hunters or state agents.[18] Montana managed a state-licensed hunt for bison that left the park from 1985 to 1991 but the number of bison migrating outside of the park continued to increase, prompting the National Park Service to develop management plans to control bison near the park boundaries. Intense controversy grew between environmentalists, livestock interests and agency managers.[44]

During harsh winters, bison found convenient grazing on several U.S. Forest Service allotments that were used for cattle in the summer. In 1995, the Montana state legislature designated Yellowstone bison as a species in need of disease management and the state sued the National Park Service for allowing bison to leave the park.[51] After five years of litigation and mediation, the state of Montana and the federal government developed the Interagency Bison Management Plan (IBMP) to guide the management of bison in and around Yellowstone. As part of this plan, five agencies and three tribal entities work to sustain a wild, wide-ranging bison population and reduce the risk of brucellosis transmission from bison to cattle.[18] In the decades since the IBMP was created, the bison population has ranged between 2,400 and 5,500 animals.[18] There have been no cases of bison transmitting brucellosis directly to cattle, in part due to efforts by federal and state agencies to maintain separation between these animals.[62] The state of Montana now allows bison to occupy some habitat adjacent to the park that was previously off-limits, including year-round in some areas, which is a major conservation advancement.[18] The lack of tolerance for wild bison in most areas outside Yellowstone continues to limit restoration.[43] Large parts of their historic winter ranges are no longer available due to human development and states only allow limited numbers of bison in areas near the park.[18] While hunting is not allowed within the park, it mainly occurs within an area outside the northern boundary near Gardiner as designated by the state.[63] Removal numbers are decided each year, with tribal and state hunters being allowed a quota.[64] Montana issues hunting permits and 4 tribes have long standing treaty rights to hunt Yellowstone bison. Most of the bison are sent to slaughter with the meat being distributed to participating tribes.[65] The IBMP plan includes allowing bison to enter the Bison Conservation Transfer Program as space allows.[63]

Bison Conservation Transfer Program

Yellowstone bison are exceptional because they comprise the nation's largest bison population on public land.

Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes who started a conservation herd at their Fort Peck Reservation.[66] A legal challenge blocked further transfers until the state supreme court ruled in June 2013 that the Montana law in question did not apply to tribal lands.[69] The state was asked to move the bison by November 2014 that been regularly tested for brucellosis while being quarantined on behalf of the Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks at the Bozeman-area ranch owned by Ted Turner.[70] In October, the commission decided to move the animals to the Fort Peck Reservation as the commission recognized that the Fort Peck Fish and Game Department had done a good job of managing the bison including the disease testing.[71] In November, 139 of the Yellowstone bison at the Flying D ranch joined the conservation herd at the Fort Peck Reservation.[72]

Certification involves a multi-year process including holding animals in fenced pastures near the park boundary.[73] The quarantine program approved by IBMP has three phases.[59] First, bison are trapped at the Stephens Creek Bison Capture Facility where they are sorted by age and sex into different enclosed pens.[74] A blood sample is also taken and they are tested for brucellosis with only about 30% of animals qualifying for the program.[73] Bison that test negative can go into quarantine. Next, testing protocols continue until the animals can be certified as disease free.[75] Finally, assurance testing involves another year in isolation with two more tests before the quarantine period is finished.[59] The first two phases currently must be done in a supervised area in the vicinity of the park.[60] APHIS and the Montana Department of Livestock established the final structural specifications and biosecurity requirements for quarantine facilities in June 2017.[75] Two pens in a Yellowstone bison trap were made into quarantine corrals with two layers of fencing in 2017.[59] The two facilities are located at Stephens Creek and Corwin Springs.[75] Quarantine facilities are managed by APHIS who coordinates the transfers with the state of Montana and the Fort Peck tribes.[76] The final phase of assurance testing can be performed at the Fort Peck Indian Reservation in northeastern Montana.[60]

Tribes and First Nations

Many tribes and

culled from government-controlled herds have been donated to Native American tribes through tribal requests of parks or refuges or by way of the ITBC.[77] The Bison Conservation Transfer Program has allowed some captured bison with Yellowstone heritage genetics that repeatedly test negative for brucellosis to provide disease-free bison to tribes and First Nations.[18] In addition to supporting cultural restoration, the quarantine program can support genetic conservation of DOI herds by incorporating Yellowstone-origin bison into the DOI metapopulation.[53] The program is a partnership that includes Yellowstone National Park, the Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation, APHIS, Montana Department of Livestock, the State of Montana, InterTribal Buffalo Council, Yellowstone Forever, Defenders of Wildlife and the Greater Yellowstone Coalition.[75]

The ITBC supported the construction of the quarantine facility at the Fort Peck Indian Reservation. They facilitate the transfer to tribes and First Nations who will use the bison to increase the genetic diversity and overall health of their own herds.[79] The recipients must be members of ITBC and agree to have the animals managed for their genetics.[80]

Under the new operational quarantine program, the first transfer into phase three at the Fort Peck Indian Reservation occurred in August 2019. The Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes would complete the quarantine program for 55 male bison who had been captured at Stephens Creek in the northwest corner of park in March 2018. Three males and 21 females captured at the same time remained in quarantine in corrals at Corwin Springs, just outside the park's North Entrance.[81] By June 2020, 104 bison had been transferred to large corral specifically built for quarantining Yellowstone bison at the reservation.[80] In August 2020, 40 buffalo, who had completed quarantine at the reservation, were distributed to 16 other tribes across the United States including Kansas, Wisconsin and Alaska.[79] Since 2019, 294 bison have been transferred to the Fort Peck Tribes in northeastern Montana.[82] Two family groups were transferred for the first time in December 2021.[83]

Province and state programs

The Minnesota Bison Conservation Herd is a project of the

Zollman Zoo. An ultimate herd size of 500 has been set to ensure the long-term sustainability of bison in Minnesota.[50] Three free-ranging herds are managed by state wildlife agencies in Utah and Alaska.[22] Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks began researching re-establishing wild populations in 2010.[85][86] The plan, which laid the groundwork for wild bison reintroduction without specifying any particular site or plan for a herd, was published in January 2020.[87] The plan was ended under a settlement in a lawsuit by United Property Owners of Montana in 2021.[88]

List of protected areas with bison herds

Bison occupy less than one percent of their historical range with fewer than 20,000 bison in conservation herds on public, tribal or private protected lands. The roughly 500,000 animals that are raised for commercial purposes are not included unless the entity is engaged in conservation efforts.[89][90]

Name Location Operator Herd size
American Prairie Montana American Prairie Foundation 800+
Antelope Island State Park[91] Utah
Utah State Parks
 200
Badlands National Park [91] South Dakota National Park Service 1000
Banff National Park[91] Alberta Parks Canada 36
Battelle Darby Creek Metro Park Ohio Columbus and Franklin County Metro Parks 10
Bear Butte State Park
 South Dakota South Dakota Department of Game, Fish, and Parks small
Bear River State Park[91] Wyoming Wyoming Division of State Parks and Historic Sites 10
Blue Mounds State Park[91] Minnesota Minnesota Department of Natural Resources 100
Broken Kettle Grasslands Preserve Iowa The Nature Conservancy 200
Buffalo Pound Provincial Park[91] Saskatchewan Saskatchewan Environment, Parks Branch
Camp Pendleton bison herd California
USMC
(Camp Pendleton Game Warden's Office)		 90
Camp Wainwright[91]
 Alberta Department of National Defence (Canada)
Caprock Canyons State Park[91]
 Texas Texas Parks and Wildlife Department 150
Catalina Island bison herd[91] California Catalina Island Conservancy 100
Chickasaw National Recreation Area Oklahoma National Park Service 3
Clymer Meadow Preserve[91] Texas The Nature Conservancy
Chippewa Cree Tribal Buffalo Pasture Montana Chippewa Cree 11
Chitina herd[91] Alaska Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Copper River herd[91] Alaska Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Crane Trust Nebraska Crane Trust 50+
Cross Ranch Nature Preserve[91] North Dakota The Nature Conservancy 200
CSKT Bison Range Montana Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes 500
Custer State Park[91] South Dakota South Dakota Department of Game, Fish, and Parks 1500
Daniels Park[91] Colorado Denver Parks and Recreation 30
Delta Junction herd[91] Alaska Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Elk Island National Park[91] Alberta Parks Canada 315
Farewell Lake herd[91] Alaska Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Fermilab bison herd[91] Illinois U.S. Department of Energy 28
Finney Game Refuge[91]
 Kansas
Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks
Fort Niobrara National Wildlife Refuge[91] Nebraska U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 350
Fort Peck Indian Reservation Montana Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes 400
Fort Robinson State Park[91]
 Nebraska Nebraska Game and Parks Commission 150
Fort Worth Nature Center and Refuge Texas Fort Worth, Texas 30
Genesee Park[91] Colorado Denver Parks and Recreation 33
Grand Teton National Park–National Elk Refuge bison herd[91] Wyoming National Park Service 1000
Grasslands National Park Saskatchewan Parks Canada 300
Hay-Zama Lakes Wildland Park
 Alberta Alberta Parks 400
Henry Mountains bison herd[91] Utah Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Bureau of Land Management 400
Hot Springs State Park[91] Wyoming Wyoming Division of State Parks and Historic Sites 11
House Rock State Wildlife Area[91] Arizona Arizona Game and Fish Department
Innoko National Wildlife Refuge Alaska U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 94
Janos Biosphere Reserve Chihuahua Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources 138
Kankakee Sands Indiana The Nature Conservancy 90+
Konza Prairie Biological Station[91] Kansas The Nature Conservancy, Kansas State University 300
Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area[91] Kentucky
U.S. Forest Service
 50
Maderas del Carmen Coahuila Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources 19
Maxwell Wildlife Refuge Kansas
Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks
 150
Medano–Zapata Ranch Colorado The Nature Conservancy
Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie Illinois
U.S. Forest Service
 50
Minneopa State Park Minnesota Minnesota Department of Natural Resources 30
Nachusa Grasslands Illinois The Nature Conservancy 130
Niobrara Valley Preserve Nebraska The Nature Conservancy
Neal Smith National Wildlife Refuge[91] Iowa U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 50
Old Man on His Back Prairie and Heritage Conservation Area Saskatchewan Nature Conservancy of Canada 115
Ordway Prairie Preserve South Dakota The Nature Conservancy
Paynes Prairie Preserve State Park Florida Florida Department of Environmental Protection 10
Pink Mountain[91]
 British Columbia British Columbia Department of Water, Lands and Air Protection
Prairie State Park[91] Missouri Missouri Department of Natural Resources 100
Primrose Lake Air Weapons Range[91] Alberta–Saskatchewan CFB Cold Lake, Department of National Defence (Canada)
Prince Albert National Park[91] Saskatchewan Parks Canada 400
Raymond State Wildlife Area[91] Arizona Arizona Game and Fish Department
Riding Mountain National Park[91] Manitoba Parks Canada 40
Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge Colorado U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 150
Sandhill Wildlife Area[91] Wisconsin Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources 15
Sandsage Bison Range & Wildlife Area
 Kansas
Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks
 51
Smoky Valley Ranch Kansas The Nature Conservancy
Soapstone Prairie/Red Mountain Colorado Fort Collins, Colorado and Larimer County 100
Spring Lake Park Reserve Minnesota Dakota County Parks 12
Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve Kansas The Nature Conservancy, National Park Service 90
Tallgrass Prairie Preserve[91] Oklahoma The Nature Conservancy 2500
Theodore Roosevelt National Park[91] North Dakota National Park Service 800
Vermejo Park Ranch New Mexico and Colorado Ted Turner 1200
Wanuskewin Heritage Park Saskatchewan Wanuskewin Heritage Park Authority 12
Waterton Lakes National Park[91] Alberta Parks Canada 6
White Horse Hill National Game Preserve[91] North Dakota U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 20
Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge[91] Oklahoma U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 650
Wildcat Hills State Recreation Area[91]
 Nebraska Nebraska Game and Parks Commission
Wind Cave National Park South Dakota National Park Service 400
Wolakota Buffalo Range South Dakota
Rosebud Economic Development Corporation
 100
Wood Buffalo National Park Alberta and Northwest Territories Parks Canada 3000
Yellowstone National Park
 Idaho, Montana, Wyoming National Park Service 4800
Commercial herds are not included. Listed herds remove excess bison on a regular basis which may be slaughtered for commercial purposes.

See also

References

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