Conservation science (cultural property)
With respect to cultural property, conservation science is the interdisciplinary study of the conservation of art, architecture, technical art history and other cultural works through the use of scientific inquiry. General areas of research include the technology and structure of artistic and historic works. In other words, the materials and techniques from which cultural, artistic and historic objects are made.
There are three broad categories of conservation science with respect to cultural heritage: understanding the materials and techniques used by artists, study of the causes of deterioration, and improving techniques and materials for examination and treatment. Conservation science includes aspects of materials science, chemistry, physics, biology, and engineering, as well as art history and anthropology.[1] Institutions such as the Getty Conservation Institute specialize in publishing and disseminating information relating to both tools used for and outcomes of conservation science research, as well as recent discoveries in the field.[2]
Introduction
Prior to thorough scientific analysis, a detailed visual assessment of the object, heritage site, or artwork is necessary in addition to gathering all relevant historic and current documentation.[3] Diagnosing the current state in a non-invasive way allows both conservators and conservation scientists to determine exactly what further analysis would be required and whether the subject of the study will be able to withstand more rigorous examination. Additionally, since the goal of conservation-restoration is to only do the minimum required for preservation, this initial assessment falls in line with the American Institute for Conservation (AIC) Code of Ethics[4] which outlines best practice for conservators and scientists alike.
Along with assessing the current state and potential risk of future deterioration of artworks and objects, scientific study may be necessary to determine if there is risk to the conservators themselves. For example, some pigments used in paintings contain highly toxic elements such as arsenic or lead and could be hazardous to those working with them.[5] Alternatively, previous restoration efforts may have involved chemicals that are now known to have dangerous side effects with prolonged exposure.[6] In these cases, conservation science may reveal the nature of these hazards as well as present solutions for how to prevent current and future exposure.
Material properties
Research into the chemical and physical properties intrinsic to the materials used to create cultural heritage objects is a large part of the study of conservation science. Materials science, in conjunction with the broader field of restoration and preservation, has resulted in what is now recognized as modern conservation.[1] Using analytical techniques and tools, conservation scientists are able to determine what makes up a particular object or artwork. In turn, this knowledge informs how deterioration is likely to occur due to both environmental effects and the inherent traits of that given material. The necessary environment to maintain or prolong the current state of that material, and which treatments will have the least amount of reaction and impact on the materials of the objects being studied, are the primary goals of conservation research. Conservation treatments fall under four broad categories including cleaning, desalination, consolidation, and pest control.[7] Knowledge of the material properties of cultural heritage and how they deteriorate over time helps conservators formulate actions to preserve and conserve cultural heritage.[8]
In many countries, including the
Paper
The majority of paper is made up of
Safe environments for the storage and display of paper artifacts include having a
Textiles
Leather
Leather is a manufactured product made from the skin of animals. Leather can deteriorate from red rot, excessive dryness resulting in cracking and breakage, fading from exposure to light, mold resulting in odors, stains, and distortion, and insects and dust, both of which can cause holes and abrasions. Corrosion can also occur when leather comes into contact with metals.[12] There are two primary methods for leather conservation: application of dressings or treatments to prolong the life of the leather and improving the means by which leather is stored. The second method is a preventive approach while the first, an older method, is an interventive approach.[12] Leather artifacts are best stored with relative humidity between 45% and 55% and a temperature of 18–20 °C (64–68 °F).[12]
Glass and ceramics
Weeping glass | Temperature and relative humidity | 18–21 °C (65–70 °F), 40% |
Crizzling glass | Temperature and relative humidity | 18–21 °C (65–70 °F), 55% |
Archaeological ceramics | Temperature and relative humidity | 18–21 °C (65–70 °F), 45% |
Metals
Metals are produced from
Plastics
Plastics experience degradation from several factors including light,
Stone
Stone objects take on many forms including sculpture, architecture, ornamental decoration, or functional pieces. Deterioration of stone depends on several factors such as the type of stone, geographical or physical location, and maintenance. Stone is subject to a number of decay mechanisms that include environmental, mechanical, and applied decay. Erosion from air, water, and physical touch can wear away surface texture. Carved stone should not be regularly cleaned as cleaning can cause deterioration by opening its pores as well as removing surface features such as engravings, artists' tools, and historical marks. Dirt, moss, and lichen do not usually cause decay to stone but may add to its patina.[18]
Wood
Wood is a
See also conservation and restoration of wooden artifacts.
Paintings
Painting materials include
See also conservation and restoration of paintings.
Mechanisms of deterioration
Conservation science studies the process by which the various mechanisms of deterioration cause changes to
Fire
Fire is caused by chemical reactions resulting in combustion. Organic material such as paper, textiles, and wood are especially susceptible to combustion.[27] Inorganic material, while less susceptible, may still suffer damage if exposed to fire for any period of time.[27] The materials used to extinguish fires, such as chemical retardants or water, can also result in further damage to material culture.
Water
Water primarily causes physical changes such as warping, stains, discoloration, and other weakening to both inorganic and organic materials.[28] Water can come from natural sources such as flooding, mechanical/technological failures, or human error.[28] Water damage to organic material may lead to the growth of other pests such as mold. In addition to the physical effects of water directly on an object or artwork, moisture in the air directly affects relative humidity which can in turn exacerbate deterioration and damage.
Light
Lightning
Lightning strikes are the primary natural cause of damage to architectural heritage because ancient buildings generally use timber with high oil content, such as pine.[31] Lightning strikes can cause the timber in the building to catch fire by the heat of the lightning arc.[31] Lightning can also split wood and cause damage to the building structure. The lightning current will generate heat after passing through the timber and generate gas inside, and the impact force formed by the instantaneous expansion of the gas will knock the wood out of damage pits or cracks.[31] Stone decorations on ancient buildings may also suffer physical damage from lightning.
Incorrect relative humidity
Incorrect temperature
Material properties directly determine the appropriate temperature needed to preserve that item. Incorrect temperatures, whether too high, too low, or fluctuating between the two, can cause varying levels of deterioration for objects.[33] Temperatures that are too high can lead to chemical and physical damage such as embrittlement, cracking, fading, and disintegration. Too high temperatures can also promote biological reactions like mold growth. Temperatures that are too low can also result in physical damages such as embrittlement and cracking.[33] Temperature fluctuations can cause materials to expand and contract rapidly which causes stress to build up within the material and eventual deterioration over time.[29]
Pests
Pests include microorganisms, insects, and rodents and are able to disfigure, damage, and destroy material culture.[34] Both organic material and inorganic material are highly susceptible. Damage can occur from pests consuming, burrowing into, and excreting on material.[34] The presence of pests can be the result of other deterioration mechanisms such as incorrect temperature, incorrect relative humidity, and the presence of water. Fumigation and pesticides may also be damaging to certain materials and requires careful consideration. Conservation science has aided in the development of thermal control methods to eradicate pests.[34]
Pollutants
Pollutants consist of a wide range of compounds that can have detrimental chemical reactions with objects.[35] Pollutants can be gases, aerosols, liquids, or solids and are able to reach objects from transference from other objects, dissipation in the air, or intrinsically as part of the object's makeup. They all have the potential to cause adverse reactions with material culture.[35] Conservation science aids in identifying both material and pollutant properties and the types of reactions that will occur. Reactions range from discoloration and stains, to acidification and structural weakening.[35] Dust is one of the most common airborne pollutants and its presence can attract pests as well as alter the object's surface.[35] Research in the field informs conservators on how to properly manage damage that occurs as well as means to monitor and control pollutant levels.
Physical forces
Physical forces are any interaction with an object that changes its current state of motion. Physical forces can cause a range of damage from small cracks and fissures to complete destruction or disintegration of material.[36] The level of damage is dependent on the brittleness or hardness of the object's material and the magnitude of the force being inflicted. Impact, shock, vibration, pressure, and abrasion are a few examples of physical forces that can have adverse effects on material culture.[36] Physical forces can occur from natural disasters like earthquakes, working forces like handling, cumulative forces like gravity, or low-level forces like building vibrations.[36] During an object's risk assessment, the material properties of the object will inform the necessary steps (i.e. building, housing, and handling) that need to take place to mitigate the effects of physical forces.
Theft and vandalism
Theft, the removal of an asset, and vandalism, the deliberate destruction or disfigurement of an asset, are directly controlled and limited by the security measures put in place at a cultural institution.[37] Conservation science can aid in the authentication or identification of stolen objects. In addition, the research of the field can help inform decisions as to the best course of action repair, minimize, or mitigate damage from vandalism.
Dissociation
Dissociation is the loss of an object, its associated data, or its value due to outside influence.[38] Adherence to proper policies and procedures is the best defense against dissociation and as such, meticulous record keeping is the basis for all good practice. Conservation science aids in the authentication or identification of misplaced objects and detailed records of all past, present, and future study is necessary for the prevention of dissociation.
Methods
There are a variety of methods used by
Prior to any type of scientific analysis, detailed documentation of the initial state of the object and justification for all proposed examinations is required to avoid unnecessary or potentially damaging study and keep the amount of handling to a minimum.[39][4][3] Processes such as stereomicroscopy can reveal surface features such as the weave of parchment paper, whether a print was done in relief or in intaglio, and even what kind of tools an artist may have used to create their works.[40][41] While there are many different specialized and generic tools used for conservation science studies, some of the most common are listed below.
Scientific equipment
- Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)[1][41][42][43]
- Able to take high resolution and high magnification micrographsto study structural and surface features
- Also may involve using Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS) to identify specific elements or compounds present in the object
- Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) can provide better contrast within the microscope in order to better visualize different phases, materials, and compounds present to identify composition
- Can help to determine paint composition (specific type of paint used) in art works and compounds that may aid in provenance queries
- Allows scientists to analyze whether the object's appearance merits preservationor if there are products of deterioration and decay that ought to be removed or cleaned prior to preservation
- Destructive/invasive method – requires obtaining a sample from an object or artwork and exposing it to X-Ray radiation
- Able to take
- Computerized Tomography Scanning (CT Scan) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- Non-destructive way to image larger objects
- Can reveal sub-surface structure as well as some composition information
- Particularly useful for imaging artifacts such as mummified remains to aid in identification and understanding of burial practices[46][47][48][49]
- When combined with "computational surface flattening"[50] CT can be used to analyze and read rolled, folded or sealed documents without disturbing the artifacts' condition.[51]
-
- Method of surface imaging whereby the location of the light source can be changed to image so an object or artwork is illuminated from a variety of directions
- Non-invasive method that yields surface topography and texture to analyze surface features
- Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)[55][41][43]
- Method for identifying materials in works of art based on the fact that each compound or element has a specific combination of atoms, each of which will have a unique peak in the resultant spectra
- Non-invasive and non-destructive method for chemical analysis that requires very small quantities of sample from inconspicuous locations on artworks and objects
- Most common IR technique used to obtain spectral information through the constructive and destructive interference of electromagnetic waves using an interferometer[56]
- Known for their excellent speed, sensitivity, and resolution, better light-gathering power than dispersive instruments, and wavelength precision and accuracy[56]
The type of material present will be the deciding factor in what method will be appropriate for study.
Further reading
- Erin Blakemore (17 Sep 2022). "Art meets science in analysis of ancient dancing horse statue". The Washington Post.
References
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- ^ "Getty Conservation Institute (GCI) | The Getty". Getty Conservation Institute. Retrieved 2019-12-12.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84755-762-9.
- ^ a b "AIC Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice" (PDF).
- ISSN 2050-7445.
- ^ Sadongei, A; Kuwanwisiwma, L; Loma'omvaya, M (2005). "Describing the problem: Contaminated artifacts and Hopi cultural use". In Odegaard, N; Sadongei, A (eds.). Old Poisons, New Problems: A Museum Resource for Managing Contaminated Cultural Materials. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press. pp. 1–3.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84755-762-9.
- ^ a b "Defining the Conservator: Essential Competencies" (PDF). American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC).
- ^ "Textile". en.m.wikipedia.org. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
- ^ "Textiles and the Environment – Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) Notes 13/1". www.canada.ca. 14 September 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
- ^ Fahey, Mary (2007). "The Care and Preservation of Antique Textiles and Costumes." Henry Ford Museum.
- ^ a b c Dirksen, V., 1997. The Degredation [sic] and Conservation of Leather. Journal of Conservation and Museum Studies, 3, pp.6–10. DOI: http://doi.org/10.5334/jcms.3972
- ^ a b Deck, Clara. (2016). The Care and Preservation of Glass and Ceramics. The Henry Ford: Dearborn, MI.
- ^ "Metals". 2008-04-09.
- ^ "Metals". aiccm.org.au. Retrieved 15 December 2019.[title missing]
- ^ "Storage of Metals – Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) Notes 9/2". www.canada.ca. 14 September 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
- ^ Shashoua, Yvonne. (2014). A Safe Place: Storage Strategies for Plastics. Conservation Perspectives, The GCI Newsletter. Spring 2014.The Getty Conservation Institute.
- ^ The Institute of Conservation. (2011). Care and Conservation of Carved Stone. Retrieved 15 December 2019 from http://www.conservationregister.com/PIcon-Stone.asp Archived 2020-02-22 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Macchioni N. (2014) Wood: Conservation and Preservation. In: Smith C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. Springer, New York, NY
- ^ Deck, C. (2016). The Care and Preservation of Furniture and Wooden Objects [PDF]. Dearborn: The Henry Ford Museum.
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- ^ a b "Water". aem. Canadian Conservation Institute. 2017-09-22. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
- ^ a b c d "Museum Collection Environments" (PDF). National Park Services. Retrieved 2019-12-15.
- ^ a b c "Light, ultraviolet and infrared". aem. Canadian Conservation Institute. 2017-09-22. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
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- ^ a b "Incorrect temperature". aem. Canadian Conservation Institute. 2017-09-22. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
- ^ a b c "Pests". aem. Canadian Conservation Institute. 2017-09-22. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
- ^ a b c d "Pollutants". aem. Canadian Conservation Institute. 2017-09-22. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
- ^ a b c "Physical forces". aem. Canadian Conservation Institute. 2017-09-22. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
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- ^ "CT scans offer a glimpse into lives of 3 Egyptian mummies". Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. 2018-02-23. Retrieved 2019-12-08.
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- ^ Manrique Tamayo, Silvia N.; Valcarcel Andres, Juan; Osca Pons, Julia (2013). "Applications of Reflectance Transformation Imaging for Documentation and Surface Analysis in Conservation". International Journal of Conservation Science. 4: 535–548.
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{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "Conservation and Science". The Art Institute of Chicago. Retrieved 2019-12-14.
External links
- American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC) – Research and Technical Studies Group
- Centre for Doctoral Training in Science and Engineering in Arts, Heritage and Archaeology at UCL, University of Oxford and University of Brighton
- AIC/NU Art Conservation Science
- Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Archived 2010-12-12 at the Wayback Machine
- Canadian Conservation Institute
- Getty Conservation Institute
- Heritage Science Masters at UCL Centre for Sustainable Heritage Archived 2010-05-10 at the Wayback Machine
- Istituto Superiore per la Conservazione e il Restauro, Rome
- [1] Archived 2011-05-19 at the Wayback Machine
- Italian Risk Map of the Cultural Heritage.
- National Archives and Records Administration Preservation Programs
- Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage, peer-reviewed open access journal, University of Bologna.
- Italian Association of Conservation Scientists
- Heritage Science
- Observatorio para la Investigación en Conservación del Patrimonio
- Plan Nacional de Investigación en Conservación (España)
- Icon Heritage Science Group
- National Heritage Science Forum