Roman consul
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A consul was the highest elected public official of the
There were two consuls in order to create a check on the power of any individual citizen in accordance with the republican belief that the powers of the former kings of Rome should be spread out into multiple offices. To that end, each consul could veto the actions of the other consul.
After the establishment of the Empire (27 BC), the consuls became mere symbolic representatives of Rome's republican heritage and held very little power and authority, with the Emperor acting as the supreme authority.
The practice of dual leaders (
History
Under the Republic
According to Roman tradition, after the
The consulship was believed by the Romans to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in 509 BC, but the succession of consuls was not continuous in the 5th century BC, when the consulship was supposedly replaced with a board of
Consuls had extensive powers in peacetime (administrative, legislative, and judicial), and in wartime often held the highest military command. Additional religious duties included certain rites which, as a sign of their formal importance, could only be carried out by the highest state officials. Consuls also read
Two consuls were elected each year, serving together, each with veto power over the other's actions, a normal principle for magistracies. They were elected by the
If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when consuls were in the forefront of battle) or was removed from office, another would be elected by the comitia centuriata to serve the remainder of the term as consul suffectus ("suffect consul"). A consul elected to start the year—called a consul ordinarius ("ordinary consul")—held more prestige than a suffect consul, partly because the year would be named for ordinary consuls (see consular dating).
According to tradition, the consulship was initially reserved for
During times of war, the primary qualification for consul was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the consulship became the normal endpoint of the cursus honorum, the sequence of offices pursued by the Roman who chose to pursue a political career. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla regulated the cursus by law, the minimum age of election to consul became 43 or 42 years of age. This age requirement was later changed to 32 during the Empire.[11][12]
Beginning in the late Republic, after finishing a consular year, a former consul would usually serve a lucrative term as a
It would not be uncommon for the patrician consuls of the early Republic to intersperse public office with agricultural labor.[13] In Cicero's words: in agris erant tum senatores, id est senes:[14] 'In those days senators—that is, seniors—would live on their farms'. This practice was obsolete by the 2nd century.
Under the Empire
Although throughout the early years of the Principate the consuls were still formally elected by the comitia centuriata, they were de facto nominated by the princeps.[15] As the years progressed, the distinction between the comitia centuriata and the comitia populi tributa (which elected the lower magisterial positions) appears to have disappeared, and so for the purposes of the consular elections, there came to be just a single "assembly of the people" which elected all the magisterial positions of the state, while the consuls continued to be nominated by the princeps.[16]
The imperial consulate during the Principate (until the 3rd century) was an important position, albeit as the method through which the Roman aristocracy could progress through to the higher levels of imperial administration—only former consuls could become consular legates, the proconsuls of Africa and Asia, or the urban prefect of Rome.[17] It was a post that would be occupied by a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others.[15] Emperors frequently appointed themselves, or their protégés or relatives, as consuls, even without regard to the age requirements. Caligula once said that he would appoint his horse Incitatus consul, which was probably a joke intended to belittle the Senate's authority.[18][19]
The need for a pool of men to fill the consular positions forced Augustus to remodel the suffect consulate, allowing more than the two elected for the ordinary consulate.[15] During the reigns of the Julio-Claudians, the ordinary consuls who began the year usually relinquished their office mid-year, with the election for the suffect consuls occurring at the same time as that for the ordinary consuls. During reigns of the Flavian and Antonine emperors, the ordinary consuls tended to resign after a period of four months, and the elections were moved to 12 January of the year in which they were to hold office. Election of the consuls were transferred to the Senate during the Flavian or Antonine periods, although through to the 3rd century, the people were still called on to ratify the Senate's selections.[20] The emperor did not assume the consulship of every year of his reign, but did nominate himself multiple times; Augustus was consul 13 times, Domitian 17, and Theodosius II 18.[21][22]
The proliferation of suffect consuls through this process, and the allocation of this office to homines novi tended, over time, to devalue the office.[17] However, the high regard placed upon the ordinary consulate remained intact, as it was one of the few offices that one could share with the emperor, and during this period it was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals who had consular ancestors.[15] If they were especially skilled or valued, they may even have achieved a second (or rarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate, these individuals already had a significant career behind them, and would expect to continue serving the state, filling in the post upon which the state functioned.[23] Consequently, holding the ordinary consulship was a great honor and the office was the major symbol of the still relatively republican constitution. Probably as part of seeking formal legitimacy, the break-away Gallic Empire had its own pairs of consuls during its existence (260–274). The list of consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscriptions and coins.
By the end of the 3rd century, much had changed. The loss of many pre-consular functions and the gradual encroachment of the equites into the traditional senatorial administrative and military functions, meant that senatorial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointment as consuls.[23] This had the effect of seeing a suffect consulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by the 4th century, it was being held by men in their early twenties, and possibly younger, without the significant political careers behind them that was normal previously.[23] As time progressed, second consulates, usually ordinary, became far more common than had been the case during the first two centuries, while the first consulship was usually a suffect consulate. Also, the consulate during this period was no longer just the province of senators—the automatic awarding of a suffect consulship to the equestrian praetorian prefects (who were given the ornamenta consularia upon achieving their office) allowed them to style themselves cos. II when they were later granted an ordinary consulship by the emperor.[23] All this had the effect of further devaluing the office of consul, to the point that by the final years of the 3rd century, holding an ordinary consulate was occasionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffect consulships were hardly ever recorded by the first decades of the 4th century.[23]
One of the reforms of
In the 6th century, the consulship was increasingly sparsely given, until it was allowed to lapse under
In the west, the rank of consul was occasionally bestowed upon individuals by the Papacy. In 719, the title of Roman consul was offered by the Pope to Charles Martel, although he refused it.[30] About 853, Alfred the Great, then a child aged four or five, was made a Roman consul by the Pope.[31]
Powers and responsibilities
Republican duties
Traditionally, after the expulsion of the kings, all the powers that had belonged to the kings were transferred to two offices: the consulship and the office of
The consuls were invested with the
Civil sphere
For the most part, power was divided between civil and military spheres. As long as the consuls were in the pomerium (the city of Rome), they were at the head of government, and all the other magistrates, with the exception of the tribune of the plebs, were subordinate to them, but retained independence of office. The internal machinery of the Republic was under the consuls' supervision. In order to allow the consuls greater authority in executing laws, the consuls had the right of summons and arrest, which was limited only by the right of appeal from their judgement. This power of punishment even extended to inferior magistrates.
As part of their executive functions, the consuls were responsible for carrying into effect the decrees of the Senate and the laws of the
The consuls could convene the Senate, and presided over its meetings. The consuls served as president of the Senate, one at a time, alternating every month. They could also summon any of the three Roman assemblies (Curiate, Centuriate, and Tribal) and presided over them. Thus, the consuls conducted the elections and put legislative measures to the vote. When neither consul was within the city, their civic duties were assumed by the praetor urbanus.
Each consul was accompanied in every public appearance by twelve
Military sphere
Outside the walls of Rome, the powers of the consuls were far more extensive in their role as
Within the city a consul could punish and arrest a citizen, but had no power to inflict capital punishment. When on campaign, however, a consul could inflict any punishment he saw fit on any soldier, officer, citizen, or ally.
Each consul commanded an army, usually two legions strong, with the help of military tribunes and a quaestor who had financial duties. In the rare case that both consuls marched together, each one held the command for a day respectively. A typical consular army was about 20,000 men and consisted of two citizen and two allied legions. In the early years of the Republic, Rome's enemies were located in central Italy, so campaigns lasted a few months. As Rome's frontiers expanded, in the 2nd century BC, the campaigns became more lengthy. Rome was a warlike society and very seldom did not wage war.[35] So the consul upon entering office was expected by the Senate and the People to march his army against Rome's enemies, and expand the Roman frontiers. His soldiers expected to return to their homes after the campaign with spoils. If the consul won an overwhelming victory, he was hailed as imperator by his troops, and could request to be granted a triumph.
The consul could conduct the campaign as he saw fit, and had unlimited powers. However, after the campaign, he could be prosecuted for his misdeeds (for example for abusing the provinces, or wasting public money, as Scipio Africanus was accused by Cato in 205 BC).
Abuse prevention
Abuse of power by consuls was prevented with each consul given the power to veto his colleague consul. Therefore, except in the provinces as commanders-in-chief where each consul's power was supreme, the consuls could only act not against each other's determined will. Against the sentence of one consul, an appeal could be brought before his colleague, which, if successful, would see the sentence overturned. In order to avoid unnecessary conflicts, only one consul would actually perform the office's duties every month and could act without direct interference. In the next month, the consuls would switch roles with one another. This would continue until the end of the consular term.
Another point which acted as a check against consuls was the certainty that after the end of their term they would be called to account for their actions while in office.
There were also three other restrictions on consular power. Their term in office was short (one year); their duties were pre-decided by the Senate; and they could not stand again for election immediately after the end of their office. Usually a period of ten years was expected between consulships.
Governorship
After leaving office, the consuls were assigned by the Senate to a province to administer as governor. The provinces to which each consul was assigned were drawn by lot and determined before the end of his consulship. Transferring his consular imperium to proconsular imperium, the consul would become a proconsul and governor of one (or several) of Rome's many provinces. As a proconsul, his imperium was limited to only a specified province and not the entire Republic. Any exercise of proconsular imperium in any other province was illegal. Also, a proconsul was not allowed to leave his province before his term was complete or before the arrival of his successor. Exceptions were given only on special permission of the Senate. Most terms as governor lasted between one and five years.
Appointment of the dictator
In times of crisis, when Rome's territory was in immediate danger, a dictator was appointed by the consuls for a period of no more than six months, after the proposition of the Senate.[36] While the dictator held office, the imperium of the consuls was subordinate to the dictator.
Imperial duties
After Augustus became the first Roman emperor in 27 BC with the establishment of the Principate, the consuls lost most of their powers and responsibilities. Though still officially the highest office of the state, they were merely a symbol of Rome's republican heritage. One of the two consular positions was often occupied by emperors themselves, specially from the 3rd century onwards. However, the imperial consuls maintained the right to preside at meetings of the Senate. They could also administer matters of justice, and organize games (ludi) and all public solemnities at their own expense.[37][38]
Consular dating
Roman dates were customarily kept according to the names of the two consuls who took office that year, much like a regnal year in a monarchy. For instance, the year 59 BC in the modern calendar was called by the Romans "the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus", since the two colleagues in the consulship were Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, although Caesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that year that it was jokingly referred to as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar".[39] The date the consuls took office varied: from 222 BC to 153 BC they took office 15 March, and due to the Second Celtiberian War, from 153 BC onwards the consuls took office on 1 January.[40] The practice of dating years ab urbe condita (from the supposed foundation date of Rome) was less frequently used.
In Latin, the
Consular Dating Key
- 509–479 BC: 1 September–29 August (August had only 29 days in Ancient Rome)
- 478–451 BC: 1 August–31 July
- 449–403 BC: 13 December–12 December
- 402–393 BC: 1 October–29 September (September had 29 days)
- 392–329 BC: 1 July–29 June (29 days)
- 222–154 BC: 15 March–14 March
- 153–46 BC: 1 January–29 December (29 days)[41]
Epigraphy
In Roman inscriptions, the word consul was abbreviated cos.
Lists of Roman consuls
For a complete list of Roman consuls, see:
- List of Roman consuls
- List of undated Roman consuls
- List of consuls designate
See also
- Constitution of the Roman Republic
- French Consulate – Government of Revolutionary France from 1799 to 1804
- Consul (Gallic Empire)
References
- ^ Derow 2012, p. 296, "Censor".
- ISBN 0198150687.
- ^ a b Kübler, B. (1900). "Consul". Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Band IV, Halbband 7, Claudius mons-Cornificius. pp. 1112–1138.
- ^ Gizewski, Christian (2013). "Consul(es)". Brill's New Pauly. Brill Online. Archived from the original on 10 November 2013. Retrieved 2 July 2013.
- ISBN 0520226518.
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- OCLC 1069567291.
- ISBN 978-0-521-06848-2.
- ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., Hornblower, S. and Spawforth, A. edd., s.v. Iunius Brutus, Lucius
- ^ T. J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, chapter 10.4.
- ^ Telford, L. (2014). Sulla: A Dictator Reconsidered. United Kingdom: Pen & Sword Military, p. 216
- ISBN 978-1-139-44641-9.
- ^ Jehne, M. (2011) 'The rise of the consular as a social type in the third and second centuries BC' in Becket al. (eds.) Consuls and Res Publica (Cambridge) 212
- ^ Cic. Sen. 56
- ^ a b c d Bagnall et al. 1987, p. 1.
- ^ Bury, John B, A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893), p. 29
- ^ a b Bagnall et al. 1987, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, 59.14.
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- ^ Michael Gagarin, Elaine Fantham; The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1 (2010), pp. 296–297
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- ^ a b c d e Bagnall et al. 1987, p. 2.
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- ^ a b Kazhdan 1991, p. 527.
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- ^ Kazhdan 1991, pp. 526–527.
- ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 526.
- ^ Kazhdan 1991, pp. 963–964.
- ^ e. The Frankish Kingdom. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History Archived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 978-0-19-861412-8. Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. (subscription or UK public library membershiprequired)
- ^ Derow 2012, p. 368.
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- ^ Polybius – Histories book VI
- ^ War and society in the Roman World, ed. Rich & Shipley
- Sulla, in which case exceptions were made.
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- ^ Seyffert, Oskar (1895). "Consules". Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. pp. 161–162.
- ^ Suetonius' Lives of the Caesars: Julius Caesar Chapter XX.
- ^ E.J. Bickerman, Chronology of the Ancient World (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968), p. 64
- ^ Robert Maxwell Ogilvie, Commentary on Livy, books 1–5, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965, pp. 404, 405.
- ISBN 2-200-21774-9, p. 34.
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- ^ (in French) Pierre Monteil, Éléments de phonétique et de morphologie du latin, Nathan, 1970, p. 75.
Bibliography
- Bagnall, Roger S.; Cameron, Alan; Schwartz, Seth R.; Worp, Klaas Anthony (1987). Consuls of the later Roman Empire. Philological monographs of the American Philological Association. Vol. 36. London: Scholar Press.
- Burgess, R. W. (1989). "Consuls and Consular Dating in the Later Roman Empire". JSTOR 1088213.
- Beck, Hans; Duplá, Antonio; Jehne, Martin; et al., eds. (2011). Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic. ISBN 978-1-139-49719-0.
- Derow, Peter Sidney (2012). "consul". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford classical dictionary (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 368–7. OCLC 959667246.
- ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6