Containerization
Containerization is a system of intermodal freight transport using intermodal containers (also called shipping containers, or ISO containers).[1] Containerization, also referred as container stuffing or container loading, is the process of unitization of cargoes in exports. Containerization is the predominant form of unitization of export cargoes, as opposed to other systems such as the barge system or palletization.[2] The containers have standardized dimensions. They can be loaded and unloaded, stacked, transported efficiently over long distances, and transferred from one mode of transport to another—container ships, rail transport flatcars, and semi-trailer trucks—without being opened. The handling system is mechanized so that all handling is done with cranes[3] and special forklift trucks. All containers are numbered and tracked using computerized systems.
Containerization originated several centuries ago but was not well developed or widely applied until after
Containers can be made from a wide range of materials such as steel, fibre-reinforced polymer, aluminum or a combination. Containers made from
Origin
Before containerization, goods were usually handled manually as
Containerization has its origins in early
By the 1830s, railroads were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway in the UK was one of these, making use of "simple rectangular timber boxes" to convey coal from Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, where a crane transferred them to horse-drawn carriages.[6] Originally used for moving coal on and off barges, "loose boxes" were used to containerize coal from the late 1780s, at places like the Bridgewater Canal. By the 1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones. The early 1900s saw the adoption of closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail.
Twentieth century
On 17 May 1917,
In 1919, Stanisław Rodowicz, an
The U.S. Post Office contracted with the
In 1926, a regular connection of the luxury passenger train from London to Paris,
In 1931, in the U.S., B. F. Fitch designed the two largest and heaviest containers in existence. One measured 17 ft 6 in (5.33 m) by 8 ft 0 in (2.44 m) by 8 ft 0 in (2.44 m) with a capacity of 30,000 pounds (14,000 kg) in 890 cubic feet (25 m3), and a second measured 20 ft 0 in (6.10 m) by 8 ft 0 in (2.44 m) by 8 ft 0 in (2.44 m), with a capacity of 50,000 pounds (23,000 kg) in 1,000 cubic feet (28 m3).[15]
In November 1932, in
The development of containerization was created in Europe and the U.S. as a way to revitalize rail companies after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, which had caused economic collapse and reduction in use of all modes of transport.[14]
In 1933 in Europe, under the auspices of the International Chamber of Commerce, the International Container Bureau (French: Bureau International des Conteneurs, B.I.C.) was established. In June 1933, the B.I.C. decided on obligatory parameters for containers used in international traffic. Containers handled by means of lifting gear, such as cranes, overhead conveyors, etc. for traveling elevators (group I containers), constructed after July 1, 1933. Obligatory Regulations:
- Clause 1. Containers are, as regards form, either of the closed or the open type, and, as regards capacity, either of the heavy or the light type.
- Clause 2. The loading capacity of containers must be such that their total weight (load, plus tare) is: 5 tonnes (4.92 long tons; 5.51 short tons) for containers of the heavy type; 2.5 tonnes (2.46 long tons; 2.76 short tons) for containers of the light type; a tolerance of 5 percent excess on the total weight is allowable under the same conditions as for wagon loads.[14]
Category | length [m (ftin)] | [m (ftin)] | [m (ftin)] | Total mass [tons] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Heavy types | ||||
Close type 62 | 3.25 m (10 ft 8 in) | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 2.20 m (7 ft 2+5⁄8 in) | 5 t (4.92 long tons; 5.51 short tons) |
Close type 42 | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 2.20 m (7 ft 2+5⁄8 in) | |
Open type 61 | 3.25 m (10 ft 8 in) | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 1.10 m (3 ft 7+1⁄4 in) | |
Open type 41 | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 1.10 m (3 ft 7+1⁄4 in) | |
Light Type | ||||
Close type 22 | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 1.05 m (3 ft 5+3⁄8 in) | 2.20 m (7 ft 2+5⁄8 in) | 2.5 t (2.46 long tons; 2.76 short tons) |
Close type 201 | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 1.05 m (3 ft 5+3⁄8 in) | 1.10 m (3 ft 7+1⁄4 in) | |
Open type 21 | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 1.05 m (3 ft 5+3⁄8 in) | 1.10 m (3 ft 7+1⁄4 in) |
In April 1935 BIC established a second standard for European containers:[14]
Category | Length [m (ftin)] | Width [m (ftin)] | High [m (ftin)] | Total mass [tons] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Heavy types | ||||
Close 62 | 3.25 m (10 ft 8 in) | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 2.55 m (8 ft 4+3⁄8 in) | 5 t (4.92 long tons; 5.51 short tons) |
Close 42 | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 2.55 m (8 ft 4+3⁄8 in) | |
Open 61 | 3.25 m (10 ft 8 in) | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 1.125 m (3 ft 8+5⁄16 in) | |
Open 41 | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 1.125 m (3 ft 8+5⁄16 in) | |
Light Type | ||||
Close 32 | 1.50 m (4 ft 11 in) | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 2.55 m (8 ft 4+3⁄8 in) | 2.5 t (2.46 long tons; 2.76 short tons) |
Close 22 | 1.05 m (3 ft 5+3⁄8 in) | 2.15 m (7 ft 5⁄8 in) | 2.55 m (8 ft 4+3⁄8 in) |
From 1926 to 1947 in the U.S., the
In the mid-1930s, the
World War II
During WWII, the
During the same time, the United States Army started to combine items of uniform size, lashing them onto a pallet, unitizing cargo to speed the loading and unloading of transport ships. In 1947 the Transportation Corps developed the Transporter, a rigid, corrugated steel container with a 9,000 lb (4,100 kg) carrying capacity, for shipping household goods of officers in the field. It was 8 ft 6 in (2.59 m) long, 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m), and 6 ft 10 in (2.08 m) high, with double doors on one end, mounted on skids, and had lifting rings on the top four corners.[19][20] During the Korean War the Transporter was evaluated for handling sensitive military equipment and, proving effective, was approved for broader use. Theft of material and damage to wooden crates convinced the army that steel containers were needed.
Mid-twentieth century
In April 1951, at Zürich Tiefenbrunnen railway station, the Swiss Museum of Transport and Bureau International des Containers (BIC) held demonstrations of container systems, with the aim of selecting the best solution for Western Europe. Present were representatives from France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Great Britain, Italy and the United States. The system chosen for Western Europe was based on the Netherlands' system for consumer goods and waste transportation called Laadkisten (literally, "loading bins"), in use since 1934. This system used roller containers that were moved by rail, truck and ship, in various configurations up to a capacity of 5,500 kg (12,100 lb), and up to 3.1 by 2.3 by 2 metres (10 ft 2 in × 7 ft 6+1⁄2 in × 6 ft 6+3⁄4 in) size.[21][22] This became the first post World War II European railway standard UIC 590, known as "pa-Behälter." It was implemented in the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, West Germany, Switzerland, Sweden and Denmark.[23] With the popularization of the larger ISO containers, support for pa containers was phased out by the railways. In the 1970s they began to be widely used for transporting waste.[23]
In 1952 the U.S. Army developed the Transporter into the CONtainer EXpress or CONEX box system. The size and capacity of the Conex were about the same as the Transporter,[nb 1] but the system was made modular, by the addition of a smaller, half-size unit of 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m) long, 4 ft 3 in (1.30 m) wide and 6 ft 10+1⁄2 in (2.10 m) high.[26][27][nb 2] CONEXes could be stacked three high, and protected their contents from the elements.[24]
The first major shipment of CONEXes, containing engineering supplies and spare parts, was made by rail from the Columbus General Depot in Georgia to the Port of San Francisco, then by ship to Yokohama, Japan, and then to Korea, in late 1952. Transit times were almost halved. By the time of the Vietnam War the majority of supplies and materials were shipped by CONEX. By 1965 the U.S. military used some 100,000 Conex boxes, and more than 200,000 in 1967.[27][31] making this the first worldwide application of intermodal containers.[24] After the US Department of Defense standardized an 8-by-8-foot (2.44 by 2.44 m) cross section container in multiples of 10-foot (3.05 m) lengths for military use, it was rapidly adopted for shipping purposes.[citation needed]
In 1955, former trucking company owner Malcom McLean worked with engineer Keith Tantlinger to develop the modern intermodal container.[32] All the containerization pioneers who came before McLean had thought too small, because they were thinking in terms of optimizing particular modes of transport. McLean's "fundamental insight" which made the intermodal container possible was that the core business of the shipping industry "was moving cargo, not sailing ships".[33] He visualized and helped to bring about a world reoriented around that insight, which required not just standardization of the metal containers themselves, but drastic changes to every aspect of cargo handling.[33]
In 1955, McLean and Tantlinger's immediate challenge was to design a
Purpose-built ships
The first vessels purpose-built to carry containers had begun operation in 1926 for the regular connection of the luxury passenger train between London and Paris, the
The next step was in Europe was after WW II. Vessels purpose-built to carry containers were used between UK and Netherlands[23] and also in Denmark in 1951.[37] In the United States, ships began carrying containers in 1951, between Seattle, Washington and Alaska.[38] None of these services was particularly successful. First, the containers were rather small, with 52% of them having a volume of less than 3 cubic metres (106 cu ft). Almost all European containers were made of wood and used canvas lids, and they required additional equipment for loading into rail or truck bodies.[39]
The world's first purpose-built container vessel was Clifford J. Rodgers,[40] built in Montreal in 1955 and owned by the White Pass and Yukon Corporation.[41] Her first trip carried 600 containers between North Vancouver, British Columbia, and Skagway, Alaska, on November 26, 1955. In Skagway, the containers were unloaded to purpose-built railroad cars for transport north to Yukon, in the first intermodal service using trucks, ships, and railroad cars.[42] Southbound containers were loaded by shippers in Yukon and moved by rail, ship, and truck to their consignees without opening. This first intermodal system operated from November 1955 until 1982.[43]
The first truly successful container shipping company dates to April 26, 1956, when American trucking entrepreneur McLean put 58 trailer vans
Toward standards
During the first 20 years of containerization, many container sizes and corner fittings were used. There were dozens of incompatible container systems in the US alone. Among the biggest operators, the
- January 1968: ISO 668 defined the terminology, dimensions and ratings.
- July 1968: R-790 defined the identification markings.
- January 1970: R-1161 made recommendations about corner fittings.
- October 1970: R-1897 set out the minimum internal dimensions of general purpose freight containers.
Based on these standards, the first TEU container ship was the Japanese Hakone Maru from shipowner NYK, which started sailing in 1968 and could carry 752 TEU containers.
In the US, containerization and other advances in shipping were impeded by the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which was created in 1887 to keep railroads from using monopolist pricing and rate discrimination, but fell victim to regulatory capture. By the 1960s, ICC approval was required before any shipper could carry different items in the same vehicle or change rates. The fully integrated systems in the US today became possible only after the ICC's regulatory oversight was cut back (and abolished in 1995). Trucking and rail were deregulated in the 1970s and maritime rates were deregulated in 1984.[48]
Double-stacked rail transport, where containers are stacked two high on railway cars, was introduced in the US. The concept was developed by Sea-Land and the Southern Pacific railroad. The first standalone double-stack container car (or single-unit 40-ft COFC well car) was delivered in July 1977. The five-unit well car, the industry standard, appeared in 1981. Initially, these double-stack railway cars were deployed in regular train service. Ever since American President Lines initiated in 1984 a dedicated double-stack container train service between Los Angeles and Chicago, transport volumes increased rapidly.[49]
Effects
Containerization greatly reduced the expense of
Meanwhile, the port facilities needed to support containerization changed. One effect was the decline of some ports and the rise of others. At the Port of San Francisco, the former piers used for loading and unloading were no longer required, but there was little room to build the vast holding lots needed for storing and sorting containers in transit between different transport modes. As a result, the Port of San Francisco essentially ceased to function as a major commercial port, but the neighboring Port of Oakland emerged as the second largest on the US West Coast. A similar fate occurred with the relationship between the ports of Manhattan and New Jersey. In the UK, the Port of London and Port of Liverpool declined in importance. Meanwhile, Britain's Port of Felixstowe and Port of Rotterdam in the Netherlands emerged as major ports.
In general, containerization caused
The effects of containerization rapidly spread beyond the shipping industry. Containers were quickly adopted by trucking and rail transport industries for cargo transport not involving sea transport. Manufacturing also evolved to adapt to take advantage of containers. Companies that once sent small consignments began grouping them into containers. Many cargoes are now designed to precisely fit containers. The reliability of containers made
In 2004, global container traffic was 354 million TEUs, of which 82 percent were handled by the world's top 100 container ports.[51]
Twenty-first century
As of 2009[update], approximately 90% of non-
Few foresaw the extent of the influence of containerization on the
The widespread use of ISO standard containers has driven modifications in other freight-moving standards, gradually forcing removable truck bodies or swap bodies into standard sizes and shapes (though without the strength needed to be stacked), and changing completely the worldwide use of freight pallets that fit into ISO containers or into commercial vehicles.
Improved cargo security is an important benefit of containerization. Once the cargo is loaded into a container, it is not touched again until it reaches its destination.[54] The cargo is not visible to casual viewers, and thus is less likely to be stolen. Container doors are usually sealed so that tampering is more evident. Some containers are fitted with electronic monitoring devices and can be remotely monitored for changes in air pressure, which happens when the doors are opened. This reduced thefts that had long plagued the shipping industry. Recent developments have focused on the use of intelligent logistics optimization to further enhance security.
The use of the same basic sizes of containers across the globe has lessened the problems caused by incompatible
Containers have become a popular way to
In July, 2020, The Digital Container Shipping Association (DCSA), a non-profit group established to further digitalisation of container shipping technology standards, published standards for the digital exchange of operational vessel schedules (OVS).[55]
Contrary to ocean shipping containers owned by the shippers, a persisting trend in the industry is for (new) units to be purchased by leasing companies. Leasing business accounted for 55% of new container purchases in 2017, with their box fleet growing at 6.7%, compared to units of transport operators growing by just 2.4% more TEU, said global shipping consultancy Drewry in their 'Container Census & Leasing and Equipment Insight', leading to a leased share of the global ocean container fleet reaching 54% by 2020.[56]
In 2021, the average time to unload a container in Asia was 27 seconds, the average time in Northern Europe was 46 seconds, and the average time in North America was 76 seconds.[57]
Container standards
ISO standard
There are five common standard lengths:
- 20 ft (6.10 m)
- 40 ft (12.19 m)
- 45 ft (13.72 m)
- 48 ft (14.63 m)
- 53 ft (16.15 m)
US domestic standard containers are generally 48 ft (14.63 m) and 53 ft (16.15 m) (rail and truck). Container capacity is often expressed in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU, or sometimes teu). An equivalent unit is a measure of containerized cargo capacity equal to one standard 20 ft (6.10 m) (length) × 8 ft (2.44 m) (width) container. As this is an approximate measure, the height of the box is not considered. For instance, the 9 ft 6 in (2.90 m) high cube and the 4 ft 3 in (1.30 m) half height 20 ft (6.10 m) containers are also called one TEU. 48' containers have been phased out over the last ten years in favor of 53' containers.
The maximum gross mass for a 20 ft (6.10 m) dry cargo container was initially set at 24,000 kg (53,000 lb), and 30,480 kg (67,200 lb)for a 40 ft (12.19 m) container (including the 9 ft 6 in or 2.90 m high cube) . Allowing for the tare mass of the container, the maximum payload mass is therefore reduced to approximately 22,000 kg (49,000 lb) for 20 ft (6.10 m), and 27,000 kg (60,000 lb) for 40 ft (12.19 m) containers.[58]
It was increased to 30,480 kg for the 20' in 2005, then further increased to a max of 36,000 kg for all sizes by the amendment 2 (2016) of the ISO standard 668 (2013).
The original choice of 8-foot (2.44 m) height for ISO containers was made in part to suit a large proportion of railway tunnels, though some had to be modified. The current standard is eight feet six inches (2.59 m) high. With the arrival of even taller hi-cube containers at nine feet six inches (2.90 m) and double stacking rail cars, further enlargement of the rail loading gauge is proving necessary.[59]
Air freight containers
While major airlines use containers that are custom designed for their aircraft and associated ground handling equipment the IATA has created a set of standard aluminium container sizes of up to 11.52 m3 (407 cu ft) in volume.
Other container system standards
Some other container systems (in date order) are:
- (1922) NYC container[60]
- (1924) von-Haus-zu-Haus (house to house; Germany)[61]
- Japanese railway containers: Containers used by the Japan Freight Railway Company[citation needed]
- (1925) Mack[62]
- (1927) English Railway container[63][64][65]
- (1928) Victorian Railways – refrigerated container[66]
- (1929) International Competition[67]
- (1930) GWR Container[68]
- (1931) International Chamber of Commerce[69]
- (1933)
- (1936) South Australian Railways Wolseley break of gauge[71]
- (1946) Queensland Railways milk container, 2,000 imperial gallons (9,100 L; 2,400 US gal), road-rail[72]
- (1974) RACE (Australia) – slightly wider than ISO containers to fit slightly wider Australian Standard pallets[73][74]
- (1994) ACTS roller containers for intermodal transport by rail and road (Central Europe)
- (1998) PODS
- (2005?) SECU (Sweden, Finland, UK) – big 95 t (93 long tons; 105 short tons) container.
- Pallet-wide containers are used in Europe and have length (45, 40 or 20 ft or 13.72, 12.19 or 6.10 m) and height like ISO-containers, but they are 2.484 m (8 ft 1+3⁄4 in) wide externally and 2.420 m (7 ft 11+1⁄4 in) internally to fit EUR-pallet better.[75] They are meant for transport inside Europe and are often accepted in ships.
- (2014) The IPPC's Cargo Transport Units Code (CTU Code).[76]
- (2021) The National Standard of the People's Republic of China is
Container loading
Full container load
A full container load (FCL)
Less-than-container load
Less-than-container load (LCL) is a
Groupage is the process of filling a container with multiple shipments for efficiency.[79]
LCL is "a quantity of
Issues
Hazards
Containers have been used to
Empty containers
Containers are intended to be used constantly, being loaded with new cargo for a new destination soon after emptied of previous cargo. This is not always possible, and in some cases, the cost of transporting an empty container to a place where it can be used is considered to be higher than the worth of the used container. Shipping lines and container leasing companies have become expert at repositioning empty containers from areas of low or no demand, such as the US West Coast, to areas of high demand, such as China. Repositioning within the port hinterland has also been the focus of recent logistics optimization work. Damaged or retired containers may be recycled in the form of shipping container architecture, or the steel content salvaged. In the summer of 2010, a worldwide shortage of containers developed as shipping increased after the recession, while new container production had largely ceased.[81]
Loss at sea
Containers occasionally fall from ships, usually during storms. According to media sources, between 2,000
In 2007 the International Chamber of Shipping and the World Shipping Council began work on a code of practice for container storage, including crew training on parametric rolling, safer stacking, the marking of containers, and security for above-deck cargo in heavy swell.[87][88]
In 2011, the MV Rena ran aground off the coast of New Zealand. As the ship listed, some containers were lost, while others were held on board at a precarious angle.
Trade union challenges
Some of the biggest battles in the container revolution were waged in Washington, D.C.. Intermodal shipping got a huge boost in the early 1970s, when carriers won permission to quote combined rail-ocean rates. Later, non-vessel-operating common carriers won a long court battle with a US Supreme Court decision against contracts that attempted to require that union labor be used for stuffing and stripping containers at off-pier locations.[89]
As pest vector
Containers are often
Other uses for containers
Shipping container architecture is the use of containers as the basis for housing and other functional buildings for people, either as temporary or a permanent housing, and either as a main building or as a cabin or as a workshop. Containers can also be used as sheds or storage areas in industry and commerce.
Tempo Housing in Amsterdam stacks containers for individual housing units.
Containers are also beginning to be used to house computer data centers, although these are normally specialized containers.
There is now a high demand for containers to be converted in the domestic market to serve specific purposes.[92] As a result, a number of container-specific accessories have become available for a variety of applications, such as racking for archiving, lining, heating, lighting, powerpoints to create purpose-built secure offices, canteens and drying rooms, condensation control for furniture storage, and ramps for storage of heavier objects. Containers are also converted to provide equipment enclosures, pop-up cafes, exhibition stands, security huts and more.
Public containerised transport[93] is the concept, not yet implemented, of modifying motor vehicles to serve as personal containers in non-road passenger transport.
The ACTS roller container standards have become the basis of containerized firefighting equipment throughout Europe.
Containers have also been used for weapon systems, such as the Russian
BBC tracking project
On September 5, 2008, the BBC embarked on a year-long project to study international trade and globalization by tracking a shipping container on its journey around the world.[95][96]
See also
- 2000s energy crisis
- Conflat
- Container terminal design process
- Double-stack rail transport
- Henry Robinson Palmer described an early principle of containerization.
- Inter-box connector
- Intermodal container
- List of cargo types
- List of world's busiest container ports
- Little Eaton Gangway 1798
- Multimodal transport
- NYC container 1922
- Shipping portal
- Stowage plan for container ships
- Tanktainers
- Unit load
Notes
- ^ (8’6" length, 6’3" width and 6’10½" height, and 9000 lbs capacity),[24][25]
- ^ Some sources also mention a 12-foot version.[28][29] and a third version, the Conex III of 8 by 8 by 6.5 feet (2.44 m × 2.44 m × 1.98 m), and a capacity of 13,000 lbs was being developed. Connecting devices were intended to join three Conex-III containers together into one 20-feet long unit, a standard recommended by the American Standards Association, for use in commercial rail, highway, and water shipping.[30]
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