Copper metallurgy in Africa
Chalcolithic Eneolithic, Aeneolithic, or Copper Age |
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↑ Stone Age ↑ Neolithic |
↓ Bronze Age ↓ Iron Age |
Copper metallurgy in Africa encompasses the study of copper production across the continent and an understanding of how it influenced aspects of African archaeology.
Origins
Scholars previously believed that
The principal evidence for this claim is an Egyptian outpost established in
Discoveries in the
Copper metallurgy has been recorded at Akjoujt in western Mauritania. The Akjoujt site is later than Agadez, dating back to around 850 BC. There is evidence of mining between 850 and 300 BC. Radiocarbon dates from the Grotte aux Chauves-souris mine shows that the extraction and smelting of malachite goes back to the early fifth century BC. A number of copper artifacts—including arrow points, spearheads, chisels, awls and plano-convex axes as well as bracelets, bead and earrings—were found at Neolithic sites in the region.[4]
Collecting dates from
Ore sources
The mineralization of copper is restricted to a few areas in western, central and southern Africa, and some have the richest deposits of copper in the world. In the west, copper has only been found in the arid regions of the Sahel and southern Sahara. The main sources of copper are:
- Akjoujt in Mauritania
- Nioro du Sahel to Sirakoro in Northern Mali
- The Aïr Massifnear Azelik and Agadez in Niger
There are not any known mines in tropical West Africa, however copper and lead workings have been in the
Mining and processing
Early African miners used copper oxides and carbonates rather than sulfides, because they were able to reduce oxides and carbonates to copper metal, but not sulfides. Sulfides were more complex to reduce to metal and required multiple stages. Complex deep-mining methods and special tools were not needed, because oxides were structurally weakened by decomposition processes and contained the most desirable ores, and although the techniques used seemed to be simple, Africans were very successful in extracting large quantities of high-grade ore.[4]
The copper mines themselves were most frequently open
There are more variations of copper smelting than there are of mining, and most of the observations and photos that were taken are in major copper producing areas. There is a lack of evidence of smelting in West Africa; however casting continued to be present and is well documented. The most common ore in Africa is malachite and it was used mainly with hardwood charcoal the smelting process.[4]
Copper throughout Africa
West Africa
In sub-Saharan West Africa, there were only two known source of copper that were commercially viable:
In West Africa, there is a great deal of documentation about copper in trade, but the travelers who wrote these documents only visited the major centers of West African polities and there is no information on the people who lived out the polities or from the
Central and South Africa
In
Copper appeared to be a prestigious metal in Central and Southern Africa. In Central Africa copper has been found in places where copper is not produced, implying some sort of commerce. Also the majority of artifacts found suggest that the primary use for copper in the area was for decorative purposes. The available evidence shows that prior to fifteenth century Zimbabwean Iron Age site also placed higher value in copper than gold, though the date may have to be pushed with recent carbon dates.[1]
It is thought that through trade with
Tswana towns of the pre-colonial period in South Africa, such as the Tlokwa capital at Marothodi near the Pilanesberg National Park, demonstrate a continuation of native copper production into the early nineteenth century. In this period, archaeological research suggests that copper production had intensified significantly to meet growing regional demands.[8]
East Africa
Copper is almost non-existent for most of the interior of
Symbolism
Bisson (2000) thought that because of copper's redness, luminosity and sound, it was valued by Africans. For many African cultures, the redness could be with life giving powers. Bisson (2000) also noted that the redness is a symbol of transition and it association with transition could explain why the wide use of copper in rituals in various African states. Also, its ability to reflect sunlight is suggested represent aggression and liminal boundaries between states, thus emphasizing its transformative properties. Finally, because of copper's use in bells and drums, it is thought to aid in the summoning spirits, when the instruments are played.[4]
See also
References
- ^ a b c d e f Herbert 1984.
- ^ a b Childs & Killick 1993, p. 317–337.
- ^ Ehret 2002.
- ^ a b c d e f g Bisson 2000, p. 83–145.
- ^ Herbert 1973, p. 179–194.
- ^ Bisson 1975, p. 276–292.
- ISSN 0305-4403.
- ^ Anderson 2009.
Bibliography
- Anderson M (2009). Marothodi: The Historical Archaeology of an African Capital. Atikkam Media.
- Bisson M (1975). "Copper currency in central Africa: the archaeological evidence". World Archaeology. 6: 276–292.
- Bisson M, et al. (2000). "Precolonial copper metallurgy: sociopolitical context". Ancient Africa Metallurgy: The Socio-cultural Context. Altamira Press. pp. 83–145.
- Childs T, Killick D (1993). "Indigenous African metallurgy: nature and culture". Annual Review of Anthropology. 22: 317–337.
- Ehret C (2002). The Civilizations of Africa: A history to 1800 Charlottesville. University Press of Virginia.
- Herbert E (1973). "Aspects of the use of copper in pre-colonial West Africa". Journal of African History. 14: 179–194.
- Herbert E (1984). Red Gold of Africa: Copper in Pre-colonial History and Culture Madison. University of Wisconsin Press.