Coral snake
Coral snake | |
---|---|
Eastern coral snake (Micrurus fulvius) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Reptilia |
Order: | Squamata |
Suborder: | Serpentes |
Superfamily: | Elapoidea |
Family: | Elapidae |
Coral snakes are a large group of
North American coloration patterns
Experts now recognize that certain coloration patterns and common mnemonics—such as the phrase “Red against yellow, deadly fellow; red against black, friendly Jack,” which people sometimes use to distinguish between the venomous coral snake and the non-venomous
Coral snakes in the United States are most notable for their red, yellow/white, and black-colored banding. However, several nonvenomous species in the U.S. have similar (though not identical) bandings, including the two scarlet snake species in the genus
Furthermore, the mnemonic is not consistently accurate for North American coral snake species found south of the U.S., either. Some species, like Mexico’s Oaxacan coral snake (Micrurus ephippifer) or Clark's coral snake (Micrurus clarki, of Costa Rica & Panama), do actually fit the mnemonic; others, like the Honduran Roatan coral snake (Micrurus ruatanus), or the redtail coral snake (Micrurus mipartitus) of Panama, do not. Further still, some South American coral snakes will fit the mnemonic, while others do not. To complicate the issue more, the South American tricolored hognose snake (Xenodon pulcher) has repeated bands of red-black-white-black, imitating the coral snake as a defense mechanism, with the key visual difference being their upturned snout (used for burrowing). The hognoses are, actually, mildly rear-fanged venomous; although generally not considered serious to humans, anecdotal research has suggested the South American hognoses to possess slightly more potent venom than the North American hognoses. In the Old World, none of the coral snake species usually fit the mnemonic.
Most species of coral snake are small in size. North American species average around 90 cm (3 ft) in length, but specimens of up to 150 cm (5 ft) or slightly larger have been reported. Some coral snakes even live in the water but most of them do not. Aquatic species have flattened tails that act as fins, aiding in swimming.
Behavior
Coral snakes vary widely in their behavior, but most are very elusive,
Coral snakes feed mostly on smaller snakes, lizards, frogs, nestling birds, small rodents, etc.
Like all elapid snakes, coral snakes possess a pair of small hollow fangs to deliver their venom. The fangs are positioned at the front of the mouth.[5][6] The fangs are fixed in position rather than retractable, and rather than being directly connected to the venom duct, they have a small groove through which the venom enters the base of the fangs.[7][8] Because the fangs are relatively small and inefficient for venom delivery, rather than biting quickly and letting go (like vipers), coral snakes tend to hold onto their prey and make chewing motions when biting.[7][9] The venom takes time to reach full effect.[8]
Coral snakes are not aggressive or prone to biting and account for less than one percent of the total number of snake bites each year in the United States. The life span of coral snakes in captivity is about seven years.[10]
Reproduction
M. fulvius reproduction is internal fertilization through the use of hemipenes. The breeding season occurs from spring to early summer and late summer to early fall.[11] Male combat is not typical in M. fulvius as males are smaller than females.[12] Micrurus fulvius are oviparous and typically lay eggs from May to July. During early spring females will undergo sudden vitellogenesis–oocyte and yolk formation–in preparation for breeding. Approximately 37 days post fertilization oviposition occurs and the average clutch size ranges from five to seven eggs. However, some in captivity have laid as many as thirteen eggs.[13] The incubation period of the M. fulvius eggs normally reaches 60 days.[11] Males also undergo sexual changes throughout the year, testicular recrudescence start in the fall and testicular regression occurs come spring.[14] However, males typically have mature sperm residing in the epididymis year round and are capable of storing sperm in the deferent duct over the winter till the females are receptive. A study investigating how climate influences the reproductive cycle discovered species found closer to the equator displayed more continuous cycles while those in colder regions had more seasonal cycles. With increasing temperatures as a result of climate change, continuous cycles have the possibility of becoming more prevalent.[12] Offspring reach maturation depending on sex, males mature at roughly 11 to 16 months while females reach maturity later at 26 months.[14]
Distribution (U.S.)
New World coral snakes exist in the southern range of many temperate U.S. states. Coral snakes are found in scattered localities in the southern coastal plains from North Carolina to Louisiana, including all of Florida. They can be found in pine and scrub oak sandhill habitats in parts of this range, but sometimes inhabit hardwood areas and pine flatwoods that undergo seasonal flooding.[15]
There is controversy about the classification of the very similar Texas coral snake as a separate species. Its habitat, in Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas is separated from the eastern coral snake's habitat by the Mississippi River. The coral snake population is most dense in the southeastern United States, but coral snakes have been documented as far north as Kentucky.[16]
The
Danger to humans
New World coral snakes possess one of the most potent
Historically, the venom of the North American Micrurus and Micruroides species was believed to contain powerful
Shortages of coral snake antivenom were previously reported,[22][23][24] but one source states that production has resumed[25] and, as of July 2021,[update] Pfizer indicates that antivenom is available.[26]
Old World
Genus Calliophis
Species in this genus are:
- )
- Calliophis bibroni (Jan, 1858) – Bibron's coral snake (India)
- Calliophis bilineatus (W. Peters, 1881)
- )
- Calliophis castoe E.N. Smith, Ogale, Deepak & Giri, 2012 – Castoe's coral snake (India)
- spotted coral snake(Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore)
- Calliophis haematoetron E.N. Smith, Manamendra-Arachchi & Somaweera, 2008 – blood-bellied coral snake (Sri Lanka)
- Calliophis intestinalis (Laurenti, 1768) – banded Malaysian coral snake (Indonesia, Malaysia)
- Calliophis maculiceps (Günther, 1858) – speckled coral snake (Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos)
- Calliophis melanurus (Shaw, 1802) – Indian coral snake (India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka)
- Calliophis nigrescens (Günther, 1862) – black coral snake (India)
- Calliophis nigrotaeniatus (W. Peters, 1863)
- Calliophis philippinus (Günther, 1864)
- Calliophis salitan R.M. Brown, Smart, Leviton & E.N. Smith, 2018 – Dinagat Island Banded Coralsnake (Philippines)
- Calliophis suluensis (Steindachner, 1891)
Nota bene: A binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than Calliophis.
Genus Hemibungarus
Species in this genus are:
- Hemibungarus calligaster (Wiegmann, 1835) – barred coral snake (Philippines)
- Hemibungarus gemianulis W. Peters, 1872 – (Philippines)
- Hemibungarus mcclungi Taylor, 1922
Genus Sinomicrurus
Species in this genus are:
- Sinomicrurus annularis (Günther, 1864)
- Sinomicrurus boettgeri (Fritze, 1894)
- Sinomicrurus iwasakii (Maki, 1935)
- Sinomicrurus japonicus (Günther, 1868) – Japanese coral snake (Ryukyu Islands)
- Sinomicrurus kelloggi (Pope, 1928) – Kellogg's coral snake (Vietnam, Laos, China)
- Sinomicrurus macclellandi (J.T. Reinhardt, 1844) – Macclelland's coral snake (India, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, China, Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan)
- Sinomicrurus peinani Liu, Yan, Hou, Wang, S.N. Nguyen, R. Murphy, Che & Guo, 2020
- Sinomicrurus sauteri (Steindachner, 1913) (Taiwan)
- Sinomicrurus swinhoei (Van Denburgh, 1912)
New World
Genus Micruroides
- Micruroides euryxanthus (Kennicott, 1860) – Arizona coral snake (lowland regions from Arizona to Sinaloa, Mexico)
Genus Micrurus
- Amaral, 1925 – White-banded Coral Snake
- Micrurus alleni K.P. Schmidt, 1936 – Allen's coral snake (eastern Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama)
- Micrurus alleni alleni K.P. Schmidt, 1936
- Micrurus alleni richardi Taylor, 1951
- Micrurus alleni yatesi Taylor, 1954
- Micrurus altirostris (Cope, 1860) (Brazil, Uruguay, and northeastern Argentina)
- Micrurus ancoralis Jan, 1872 – regal coral snake (southeastern Panama, western Colombia, and western Ecuador)
- Micrurus ancoralis ancoralis Jan 1872
- Micrurus ancoralis jani K.P. Schmidt, 1936
- Micrurus annellatus (W. Peters, 1871) – annellated coral snake (southeastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, Bolivia, and western Brazil)
- Micrurus annellatus annellatus (W. Peters, 1871)
- Micrurus annellatus balzanii (Boulenger, 1898)
- Micrurus annellatus bolivianus Roze, 1967
- Micrurus averyi K.P. Schmidt, 1939 – black-headed coral snake
- Micrurus baliocoryphus (Cope, 1860) – Mesopotamian coral snake
- Micrurus bernadi (Cope, 1887) (Mexico)
- Micrurus bocourti (Jan 1872) – Ecuadorian coral snake (western Ecuador to northern Colombia)
- )
- Micrurus boicora Bernarde, Turci, Abegg & Franco, 2018 – Boicora Coral Snake
- Micrurus brasiliensis Roze, 1967 – Brazilian short-tailed coral snake
- Micrurus browni K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943 – Brown's coral snake (Quintana Roo to Honduras)
- Micrurus browni browni K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943
- Micrurus browni importunus Roze, 1967
- Micrurus browni taylori K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943
- Micrurus camilae Renjifo & Lundberg, 2003 (Colombia)
- Micrurus catamayensis Roze, 1989 – Catamayo coral snake (Catamayo Valley of Ecuador)
- Micrurus clarki K.P. Schmidt, 1936 – Clark's coral snake (southeastern Costa Rica to western Colombia)
- Micrurus collaris (Schlegel, 1837) – Guyana blackback coral snake (northern South America)
- Micrurus collaris collaris (Schlegel, 1837)
- Micrurus collaris breviventris Roze & Bernal-Carlo, 1987
- Micrurus corallinus (Merrem, 1820) – painted coral snake
- Micrurus decoratus(Jan 1858) – Brazilian coral snake
- Micrurus diana Roze, 1983
- Micrurus diastema (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) – variable coral snake
- Micrurus diastema aglaeope (Cope, 1859)
- Micrurus diastema alienus (F. Werner, 1903)
- Micrurus diastema affinis (Jan 1858)
- Micrurus diastema apiatus (Jan 1858)
- Micrurus diastema diastema (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
- Micrurus diastema macdougalli Roze, 1967
- Micrurus diastema sapperi (F. Werner, 1903)
- Micrurus dissoleucus (Cope, 1860) – pygmy coral snake
- Micrurus dissoleucus dissoleucus (Cope, 1860)
- Micrurus dissoleucus dunni Barbour, 1923
- Micrurus dissoleucus melanogenys (Cope, 1860)
- Micrurus dissoleucus meridensis Roze, 1989
- Micrurus dissoleucus nigrirostris K.P. Schmidt, 1955
- Micrurus distans (Kennicott, 1860) – West Mexican coral snake
- Micrurus distans distans (Kennicott, 1860)
- Micrurus distans michoacanensis (Dugės, 1891)
- Micrurus distans oliveri Roze, 1967
- Micrurus distans zweifeli Roze, 1967
- Micrurus diutius Burger, 1955 – Trinidad Ribbon Coral Snake
- Micrurus dumerilii (Jan 1858)
- Micrurus dumerilii antioquiensis K.P. Schmidt, 1936
- Micrurus dumerilii carinicaudus K.P. Schmidt, 1936
- Micrurus dumerilii colombianus (Griffin, 1916)
- Micrurus dumerilii dumerilii (Jan 1858)
- Micrurus dumerilii transandinus K.P. Schmidt, 1936
- Micrurus dumerilii venezuelensis Roze, 1989
- Micrurus elegans(Jan 1858) – elegant coral snake
- Micrurus elegans elegans (Jan 1858)
- Micrurus elegans veraepacis K.P. Schmidt, 1933
- Micrurus ephippifer (Cope, 1886) – Oaxacancoral snake
- Micrurus ephippifer ephippifer (Cope, 1886)
- Micrurus ephippifer zapotecus Roze, 1989
- Micrurus filiformis (Günther, 1859) – slender coral snake
- Micrurus filiformis filiformis (Günther, 1859)
- Micrurus filiformis subtilis Roze, 1967
- Micrurus frontalis (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) – southern coral snake (Brazil to northeastern Argentina)
- Micrurus frontalis frontalis (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
- Micrurus frontalis mesopotamicus Barrio & Miranda, 1967
- Micrurus fulvius (Linnaeus, 1766) – eastern coral snake (U.S. coastal plains of North Carolina to Louisiana)
- Micrurus hemprichii (Jan 1858) – Hemprich's coral snake
- Micrurus hemprichii hemprichii (Jan 1858)
- Micrurus hemprichii ortoni K.P. Schmidt, 1953
- Micrurus hemprichii rondonianus Roze & Silva, 1990
- Micrurus hippocrepis (W. Peters, 1862) – Mayan coral snake
- Micrurus ibiboboca (Merrem, 1820) – Caatinga coral snake
- Micrurus isozonus (Cope, 1860) – Venezuela coral snake
- Langsdorff's coral snake
- Micrurus laticollaris (W. Peters, 1870) – Balsan coral snake
- Micrurus laticollaris laticollaris (W. Peters, 1870)
- Micrurus laticollaris maculirostris Roze, 1967
- Micrurus latifasciatus K.P. Schmidt, 1933 – broad-ringed coral snake
- Micrurus lemniscatus (Linnaeus, 1758) – South American coral snake (most of low-lying areas of South America)
- Micrurus lemniscatus carvalhoi Roze, 1967
- Micrurus lemniscatus frontifasciatus (F. Werner, 1927)
- Micrurus lemniscatus helleri K.P. Schmidt & F.J.W. Schmidt, 1925
- Micrurus lemniscatus lemniscatus (Linnaeus, 1758)
- Micrurus limbatus Fraser, 1964 – Tuxtlan coral snake
- Micrurus limbatus limbatus Fraser, 1964
- Micrurus limbatus spilosomus Pérez-Higareda & H.M. Smith, 1990
- Micrurus margaritiferus Roze, 1967 – speckled coral snake
- Micrurus medemi Roze, 1967
- Micrurus meridensis (Roze, 1989) – Merida's coral snake
- Micrurus mertensi K.P. Schmidt, 1936 – Merten's coral snake
- Micrurus mipartitus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) – redtail coral snake
- Micrurus mipartitus anomalus (Boulenger, 1896)
- Micrurus mipartitus decussatus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron, & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
- Micrurus mipartitus mipartitus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
- Micrurus mipartitus semipartitus (Jan 1858)
- Micrurus mosquitensis Schmidt, 1933 – Misquito coral snake
- Micrurus multifasciatus (Jan 1858) – many-banded coral snake
- Micrurus multifasciatus multifasciatus (Jan 1858)
- Micrurus multifasciatus hertwigi (F. Werner, 1897)
- Micrurus multiscutatus Rendahl & Vestergren, 1940 – Cauca coral snake
- Micrurus narduccii (Jan, 1863) – Andean blackback coral snake
- Micrurus narduccii narduccii (Jan 1863)
- Micrurus narduccii melanotus (W. Peters, 1881)
- Micrurus nattereri (Schmidt, 1952) – Natterer's Coral Snake
- Micrurus nebularis Roze, 1989 – cloud forest coral snake
- islands)
- Micrurus nigrocinctus babaspul Roze, 1967
- Micrurus nigrocinctus coibensis K.P. Schmidt, 1936
- Micrurus nigrocinctus divaricatus (Hallowell, 1855)
- Micrurus nigrocinctus nigrocinctus (Girard, 1854)
- Micrurus nigrocinctus ovandoensis K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943
- Micrurus nigrocinctus wagneri Mertens, 1941
- Micrurus nigrocinctus yatesi Dunn, 1942
- Micrurus nigrocinctus zunilensis K.P. Schmidt, 1932
- Micrurus obscurus (Jan 1872) – Bolivian Coral Snake
- Micrurus oligoanellatus (Ayerbe & Lopez, 2005) – Tambito's Coral Snake
- Micrurus ornatissimus (Jan 1858) – Ornate Coral Snake
- Micrurus pacaraimae Morato de Carvalho, 2002
- Micrurus pachecogili Campbell, 2000
- Micrurus paraensis da Cunha & Nascimento, 1973
- Micrurus peruvianus K.P. Schmidt, 1936 – Peruvian coral snake
- Micrurus petersi Roze, 1967 – Peters' coral snake
- Micrurus potyguara Pires, Silva, Feitosa, Prudente, Pereira-Filho & Zaher, 2014 – Potyguara coral snake
- Micrurus proximans H.M. Smith & Chrapliwy, 1958 – Nayarit coral snake
- Micrurus psyches (Daudin, 1803) – Carib coral snake
- Micrurus psyches circinalis (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
- Micrurus psyches donosoi Hoge, Cordeiro & Romano, 1976
- Micrurus psyches psyches (Daudin, 1803)
- Micrurus putumayensis Lancini, 1962 – Putumayo coral snake
- Micrurus pyrrhocryptus(Cope, 1862)
- Micrurus remotus Roze, 1987
- Micrurus renjifoi Lamar, 2003
- Micrurus ruatanus (Günther, 1895) – Roatáncoral snake
- Santandercoral snake
- Micrurus scutiventris (Cope, 1869)
- Micrurus serranus (Harvey, Aparicio & Gonzalez, 2003)
- Micrurus silviae Di-Bernardo, Borges-Martins & Silva, 2007
- Amazoncoral snake
- Micrurus spixiii martiusi K.P. Schmidt, 1953
- Micrurus spixii obscurus (Jan 1872)
- Micrurus spixii princeps (Boulenger, 1905)
- Micrurus spixii spixii (Wagler, 1824)
- Micrurus spurelli (Boulenger, 1914)
- Micrurus steindachneri (F. Werner, 1901) – Steindachner's coral snake
- Micrurus steindachneri orcesi Roze, 1967
- Micrurus steindachneri steindachneri (F. Werner, 1901)
- Micrurus stewarti Barbour & Amaral, 1928 - Panamanian coral snake
- Micrurus stuarti Roze, 1967 – Stuart's coral snake
- Micrurus surinamensis (Cuvier, 1817) - aquatic coral snake
- Micrurus surinamensis nattereri K.P. Schmidt, 1952
- Micrurus surinamensis surinamensis (Cuvier, 1817)
- Micrurus tener (Baird & Girard, 1853) – Texas coral snake (Texas and Louisiana south to Morelos and Guanajuato)
- Micrurus tener fitzingeri (Jan 1858)
- Micrurus tener maculatus Roze, 1967
- Micrurus tener microgalbineus B.C. Brown & H.M. Smith, 1942
- Micrurus tener tamaulipensis Lavin-Murcio & Dixon, 2004
- Micrurus tener tener(Baird & Girard, 1853)
- Micrurus tikuna Feitosa, Silva, Pires, Zaher & Prudente, 2015
- Micrurus tricolor Hoge, 1956
- Micrurus tschudii (Jan 1858) – desert coral snake
- Micrurus tschudii olssoni K.P. Schmidt & F.J.W. Schmidt, 1925
- Micrurus tschudii tschudii (Jan 1858)
Mimicry
New World coral snakes serve as models for their
- Cemophora coccinea
- Chionactis palarostris
- Erythrolamprus aesculapii
- Erythrolamprus bizona
- Erythrolamprus ocellatus, Tobago false coral snake
- Lampropeltis elapsoides, scarlet kingsnake
- Lampropeltis pyromelana
- Lampropeltis triangulum, milk snake, including the following subspecies and others:
- Lampropeltis triangulum amaura
- Lampropeltis triangulum annulata
- Lampropeltis triangulum campbelli
- Lampropeltis triangulum gaigeae
- Lampropeltis triangulum gentilis
- Lampropeltis triangulum hondurensis
- Lampropeltis triangulum multistrata
- Lampropeltis triangulum syspila
- Lampropeltis zonata
- Lystrophis pulcher, tri-color hognose snake
- Oxyrhopus petola
- Oxyrhopus rhombifer, false coral snake
- Pliocercus elapoides, variegated false coral snake
- Rhinobothryum bovallii, coral mimic snake, false tree coral
- Rhinocheilus lecontei tessellatus
References
- PMID 10764543.
- JSTOR 3893186.
- S2CID 222320580.
- ^ "The Most Common Myths About Coral Snakes | The Venom Interviews". thevenominterviews.com. Archived from the original on 23 November 2018. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
- ^ Eastern Coral Snake (Micrurus fulvius) Archived 31 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Savannah River Ecology Library.
- ^ "Coral Snakes: Rear fanged? Grooved fangs? Primitive?". Archived from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2015.
- ^ a b "Eastern Coral Snake". Archived from the original on 9 January 2011. Retrieved 19 November 2008.
- ^ a b "Coral Snakes: Micrurus f. fulvius". Archived from the original on 29 September 2018. Retrieved 24 November 2009.
- ^ Coral Snakes: Colors, Bites, Farts & Facts Archived 24 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Live Science.
- ^ "Eastern Coral Snake". Animals national Geographic. 10 September 2010. Archived from the original on 9 August 2016. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
- ^ a b Chapman, Shannon. "Micrurus fulvius (Eastern Coral Snake, Harlequin Coralsnake)". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
- ^ S2CID 86499469.
- ISSN 0018-0831.
- ^ JSTOR 3891805.
- ^ "University of Georgia, Savannah River Ecology, Snakes of Georgia and South Carolina". Archived from the original on 12 January 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2008.
- ^ "Western Connecticut State University". Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 19 November 2008.
- ^ "Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum". Archived from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2008.
- ^ "Snake bites: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". Nlm.nih.gov. 13 January 2010. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
- ISSN 1096-2867.
- PMID 32803694.
- PMID 17265902.
- ^ "Safety & Availability (Biologics) > Expiration Date Extension for North American Coral Snake Antivenin (Micrurus fulvius) (Equine Origin) Lot 4030026 Through October 31, 2014". Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
- ^ Breen, David (12 October 2013). "Risk from coral-snake bites grows as antivenin dwindles". Orlando Sentinel. Archived from the original on 24 May 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2014.
- ^ "Antivenom Shortages – Cost of Antivenom Production Creates Shortages". Popular Mechanics. 10 May 2010. Archived from the original on 13 May 2010. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
- ^ Greene, Spencer (9 April 2021). Alcock, Joe (ed.). "What is the treatment for coral snake envenomation?". Medscape. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
- ^ "Antivenin (Micrurus fulvius equine origin) North American Coral Snake Antivenin". Pfizer Hospital US. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
- PMID 28568087.
- S2CID 14576682.
- S2CID 205015058.
Further reading
- Boulenger, G.A. (1896). Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume III., Containing the Colubridæ (Opisthoglyphæ and Proteroglyphæ)…. Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, Printers.) London. xiv + 727 pp. + Plates I.- XXV. (Elaps, 28 species, pp. 411–433 + Plate XX.)
- ISBN 978-0894648472.
- Tanaka, G.D.; Furtado MD, F.D.; Portaro, F.C.V.; Sant'Anna, O.A.; Tambourgi, D.V. (2010). "Diversity of Micrurus Snake Species Related to Their Venom Toxic Effects and the Prospective of Antivenom Neutralization".
- Universidad de Costa Rica (2009). El envenenamiento por mordedura de serpiente en Centroamérica ("Snakebite poisonings in Central America"). San José, Costa Rica: Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica. (in Spanish)