Coropuna
Coropuna | |
---|---|
Nevado Coropuna | |
Quechua) | |
English translation | "Golden mountain", "cold, snowy" or "cut off at the top" |
Geography | |
Central Volcanic Zone | |
Last eruption | 1,100 ± 100 or 700 ± 200 years ago |
Climbing | |
First ascent | possibly prehistoric |
Coropuna is a
The Coropuna complex consists of several
Coropuna is located 150 kilometres (93 mi) northwest of the city of Arequipa. People have lived on the slopes of Coropuna for millennia. The mountain was regarded as sacred by the Inca, and several archaeological sites have been discovered there, including the Inca sites of Maucallacta and Acchaymarca. The mountain was considered one of the most important Inca religious sites in their realm; human sacrifices were performed on its slopes, Coropuna forms part of many local legends and the mountain is worshiped to the present day.
The ice cap of Coropuna, which during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) had expanded to over 500 km2 (190 sq mi), has been in retreat since at least 1850. Estimates published in 2018 imply that the ice cap will persist until about 2120. The retreat of the Coropuna glaciers threatens the water supply of tens of thousands of people relying upon its watershed, and interaction between volcanic activity and glacial effects has generated mudflows that could be hazardous to surrounding populations. Because of this, the Peruvian geological agency, INGEMMET, monitors Coropuna and has published a hazard map for the volcano.
Name and etymology
In Quechua, puna means "plateau", and coro is a common component of toponyms such as with Coro Coro, Bolivia, though its etymology is unclear.[5] The name may mean Qoripuna, "Puna of Gold",[6] "golden mountain",[7] "cold, snowy" or "cut off at the top".[8] The name is also spelled Qhuru Puna.[9] The mountain is also called Nevado Coropuna; "Nevado" is the Spanish word for "snowy".[10] There is another volcano in the Andahua volcanic field which has the same name, but is completely separate.[11]
Geography and geomorphology
Coropuna lies in the
Regional
The Andes stretch along the western coast of South America from Tierra del Fuego northwards to Venezuela, forming the longest mountain chain in the world.[18] More regionally, the volcano is in the Cordillera Ampato , a mountain range which lies at an average of 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the Pacific coastline,[19] and contains nearly one hundred glaciers.[20]
Coropuna is in the
There is no habitation on Coropuna above 5,200 metres (17,100 ft),[27] but numerous villages dot the lower slopes.[c] Agriculture and animal husbandry are the most common economic activities;[29] there are copper and gold mines as well.[30] The city of Arequipa lies 150 km (93 mi) to the southeast.[12]
Local
General outline
Seen from above, Coropuna has a pear-shaped outline[31] and is a 20 km (12 mi) east–west ridge[14] that features four summits that are separated by broad saddles.[12][32] In addition, there is another summit north of the east–west trend.[1] A 5,558 m (18,235 ft) high subsidiary peak named Cerro Cuncaicha lies east of Coropuna;[33] it is a stratovolcano.[34] Coropuna covers a surface area of 240 square kilometres (93 sq mi)[35] and its various main summits rise about three kilometres (1.9 mi) above the surrounding plateau.[23]
The volcano is formed from alternating layers of
The higher elevations of Coropuna consist of an ice cap and glaciated terrain
There are several collapse scarps on the mountain, especially around its central sector.[34] A sector collapse took place on the southwestern flank and formed a landslide deposit as well as a horseshoe-shaped valley that was later filled by glaciers.[45] Also on the southern side, mud-water flow deposits have been found in the Capiza River valley and appear to relate to Coropuna;[46] at least eight such debris flows have been identified.[47] Lahars (mudflows) have reached the Colca River valley.[48] Lahars are dangerous phenomena owing to their high speed and density, causing large scale destruction and fatalities,[46] and can be generated both by volcanic and meteorological processes.[49]
Lakes and rivers
Lakes lie on the flanks of the volcano.
The volcano is situated on a
Surrounding terrain
Coropuna rises two km (1.2 mi) above the surrounding terrain[2][32] from a base elevation of 4,500 m (14,800 ft),[14] and about 3.5 km (2.2 mi) on the southern side where the Rio Llacllaja has incised the underlying basement[2][32] almost to the foot of the volcano, forming sharp, amphitheatre-like valleys.[55] In general, many deep valleys cut into the flanks of the volcano[58] and give the mountain an "impressive topographic relief".[1]
The region is characterised by high plateaus separated by deep canyons, including some of the world's deepest gorges[52] that reach depths of 600–3,000 m (2,000–9,800 ft).[59] Apart from river erosion, giant landslides have affected the Altiplano below Coropuna,[60] such as the Chuquibamba landslide, which took place over the last 120,000 years in the form of multiple collapse events within a fault-controlled basin.[61]
Geomorphologically, Coropuna lies at the edge of the Altiplano high plateau on the
Elevation and size
Coropuna is the largest[66] and highest volcano in Peru, the highest peak of the Cordillera Ampato[2] and the third-highest mountain in Peru.[6][7] The highest point of Coropuna is the northwestern dome[1][35] named Coropuna Casulla,[15] with 6,377 metres (20,922 ft) elevation.[1][67][40] Mountaineering sources also cite an elevation of 6,425 m (21,079 ft) for the El Toro summit,[68][69] which would make Coropuna the 22nd highest mountain in the Andes.[22][d]
Estimates on the height of Coropuna have changed over time. In the 19th century, it was one of the candidates for "highest mountain in Peru", with the Mapa del Perú (Map of Peru) of
Coropuna has several summits (up to ten overall according to one count)[31] which exceed 6,000 m (20,000 ft) elevation,[56] plus a 5,623 m (18,448 ft) northern summit.[15] Those with individual names are the northwestern Coropuna Casulla at 6,377 m (20,922 ft),[35] El Toro,[68][69] the western Nevado Pallacocha at 6,171 m (20,246 ft), the central Coropuna Central II at 6,161 m (20,213 ft),[77] Escalera at 6,171 m (20,246 ft) in the western sector of the volcano, Paiche at 6,330 m (20,770 ft) in the central sector,[78][34] and Coropuna Este[79] and Yana Ranra at 6,305 m (20,686 ft) in the eastern sector.[34][78]
Ice cap
Coropuna features the largest ice cap of the tropics.[46] As of 2014 it was 8.5 km (5.3 mi) wide and eleven km (6.8 mi) long.[80] It is larger than the Quelccaya Ice Cap 250 km (160 mi) farther northeast, which was considered to be the largest,[80][81] but has since shrunk to a size less than Coropuna's.[82] A subsidiary peak named Cerro Cuncaicha, east of Coropuna, has a small ice cap as well.[83] In general, Peruvian glaciers form the bulk of the world's tropical glaciers.[84] The ice cap consists of three ice domes and many glaciers.[80] Perennial snow fields are present on Coropuna, sometimes making it hard to measure the true extent of glaciation or glacier retreat.[32]
On average, the ice cap of Coropuna is about 80.8 m (265 ft) thick,
Penitentes[19] reaching heights of two m (6 ft 7 in)[91] and seracs (blocks of ice in glaciers delimited by cracks) occur on the glaciers,[28] while debris cover is rare.[92] Mudflows (lahars) originated from the ice cap[2] and left deposits at the bottom of valleys.[58]
Glaciers and periglacial phenomena
A number of glaciers flow down from the ice cap,
Glaciers descend to elevations of about 5,100 to 5,300 m (16,700 to 17,400 ft) on the southern flank, and to about 5,500 to 5,800 m (18,000 to 19,000 ft) on the northern flank.[12][37][80] This is higher than the freezing level, owing to the dry climate;[2] the freezing level at Coropuna lies at about 4,900 m (16,100 ft) elevation.[32] In 2001, the ice limits were located at elevations of 5,300 m (17,400 ft) on the southern and at 5,600 m (18,400 ft) on the northern flank.[97]
Apart from normal glaciers, 78
Recent area and retreat
Measuring the surface area of Coropuna's ice cap is difficult as seasonal snow can be mistaken for ice,[105] and different studies come to various conclusions about the retreat rate, due to the use of different time periods and methodological practices. However, all studies conclude that the net retreat trend is obvious and that the ice cap is diminishing.[106] Retreat rates shortly before 2009 reached 13 per cent in only 21 years.[107] Between 1980 and 2014 the ice cap shrank at a rate of 0.409 km2/a (0.158 sq mi/a)[80] with a 2015 estimate amounting to 0.5 km2/a (0.19 sq mi/a),[108] and a brief slowdown observed during the late 1990s and early 2000s.[109] Total shrinkage has been estimated to amount to 26 per cent between 1962 and 2000, and by 18 per cent between 1955 and 2007.[2] Retreat is faster on the northern side of the mountain.[110]
The Coropuna ice cap retreat follows the pattern recorded elsewhere in Peru such as in the Cordillera Blanca,
-
Glacier trends and extrapolation
-
Ice profile
-
Ice thickness
-
Ice schematics
Glacial history
Before the first human settlement of the area,
Regional climate oscillations are recorded in the ice masses of Coropuna.[119] The glacial history of the volcano has been reconstructed with tephrochronology (using dated tephra layers such as those from the 1600 Huaynaputina eruption), radiocarbon dating[37] and surface exposure dating using helium-3.[32] Three separate moraine generations[34] and about five separate glacial stages have been recorded on the volcano.[120] Glacial advances on Coropuna appear to be synchronous to advances of the ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere.[121] Glaciers developed on other mountains in the region as well.[122]
Last glacial maximum
During the
The LGM ice cap had an area of at least 365 km2 (141 sq mi), with glaciers descending to 3,780–4,540 m (12,400–14,900 ft) elevation. Glacier ends were lower on the northern
Other glacial periods
Ice has been present on Coropuna for at least 80,000 years.
Glaciers retreated after the end of the last glacial maximum 20,000–18,000 years ago and then re-expanded.
Importance as a source of water
Glaciers in Peru are important sources of water for local communities and for
Geology
Regional setting
Off the coast of Peru, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate at a rate of five–seven centimetres per year (2.0–2.8 in/year)[143] or nine centimetres per year (3.5 in/year).[144] This subduction process, along with the subduction of the Antarctic Plate also underneath the South American Plate, is responsible for the volcanism in the Andes and the uplift of the mountain chain.[145] In the Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera) uplift commenced about 50 million years ago in the Eocene, paused until 25 million years ago in the Oligocene, and increased substantially after about 10 million years ago in the Miocene.[146] Andean uplift in the area of Coropuna is ongoing.[31]
Coropuna is part of the volcanic arc of southern Peru[46] and is considered to be a member of the Barroso volcanic arc.[97] There are over six hundred volcanoes in southern Peru,[147] and the entire Cordillera Occidental from southern Peru to northern Chile is covered with volcanic rocks, although present-day volcanic activity is scarce.[55] Many of the older volcanoes are deeply eroded by glaciation, while younger volcanoes often still resemble cones.[63]
Volcanic activity in the Andes occurred during three eras. The first was between 195 and 190 million years ago in the Early Jurassic, and generated the Chocolate Formation. The second between 78 and 50 million years ago (Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene) generated the Toquepala Formation and the Andean batholiths.[146] Volcanic activity in southern Peru commenced about 13 million years ago in the Miocene.[148] One volcanic unit – after being folded and eroded – was covered by a second lava and tuff unit, which in turn was followed by the emplacement of large volcanoes.[63] Ignimbrites and stratovolcano activity, at times subdivided into a "rhyolitic" and an "andesitic" formation, alternated.[55]
Basement
Coropuna is constructed atop of 14 million year old ignimbrites
Faults and lineaments
The basement is cut by faults and
Composition
The rocks released by Coropuna are dark brown to black and
The volcanic rocks define a
Eruption history
The beginning of Coropuna's growth has variously been placed over 5 million years ago,[162] during the Pliocene[163] or late Miocene, but most of its structure developed during the Quaternary.[12] Volcanic activity has been subdivided into two stages: explosive eruptions during the now mostly eroded Coropuna I stage produced volcanic ash, pyroclastic flows and pumice but also lava flows, while Coropuna II above 6,000 m (20,000 ft) elevation erupted lava flows from the now snow-covered vents.[57][164] The existence of a Coropuna III sequence has been proposed.[157] The most recent eruption products have been described as the "Andahua Group".[165] About 5.3 million years ago, the Sunjillpa volcano was active southwest from Coropuna,[34] while Cunciacha east of Coropuna is of lower Pleistocene[78] and Pumaranra of Pliocene to Quaternary age.[57]
A major ignimbrite eruption took place about 2 million years ago at Coropuna; its deposits have been identified west of the volcano[166][43] and it led to the destruction of the edifice, which later re-formed on the remains of the old volcano.[55] The occurrence of explosive eruptions during a mostly effusive activity has been found at Chachani and Sara Sara as well.[55]
In addition, the Upper Sencca Ignimbrite, the Lower Sencca Ignimbrite
After a hiatus,
Holocene
No eruptions of Coropuna during historical[175] or modern times are known,[137] and the volcano was considered to be long-extinct.[39] However, young-looking[38] ʻaʻā lava[176] or block lava[23] flows erupted during the Holocene and in part overlie late-glacial moraines.[12][157][176] Their vents are now hidden beneath glacier ice,[22] and the flows have been affected by later glacial advances.[177] These lava flows are found on the west–northwest, south–southeast and northeast side of the mountain:[83]
- A northwesterly lava flow – Coropuna's longestLate Glacial period.[178]
- A southeasterly flow lies in the Cospanja valley and is either 1,100 ± 100
- A dark, young-looking lava[181] flow runs northeasterly[33] in the Queñua Ranra valley[57] and is five kilometres (3.1 mi) long.[182] The eruption took place about 2,100 ± 200 years ago[183] according to cosmogenic isotope dating.[46] Its deposition was preceded by the eruption of lava bombs that cover the valley and by the production of a lahar that advanced 14 km (8.7 mi) from its source. Whether a secondary lava flow in the same valley occurred at the same time or later is not clear, as that flow has not yet been dated.[183]
The ages of the flows indicate an eastward shift in activity.
Present day status
The volcano is still hydrothermally active.
Some of the hot springs on Coropuna are used for bathing.[158] The volcano had been considered a potential site for geothermal power production,[193] but research published in 1998 concluded that the available energy of the Coropuna area was insufficient.[194]
The first volcano activity report published in 2018 noted ongoing
Hazards and monitoring
The Peruvian
Together with El Misti, Sabancaya and Ubinas, Coropuna is considered to be one of Peru's most dangerous volcanoes.
Lava flows are also a potential danger at Coropuna.[156] Other hazards with lesser probabilities are directed volcanic blasts, lava dome collapses,[156] fast-moving massive pyroclastic flows[210] and flows of pumice and volcanic ash,[156] lava bombs[211] and shock waves from volcanic explosions.[212]
Climate
Precipitation
Coropuna lies between the semi-humid Altiplano and the
Most precipitation falls as
The amount of precipitation is modulated by the
Temperature
Temperatures decrease with altitude gain, and at lower elevations around 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) they average 12–17 °C (54–63 °F). Between 3,000 and 4,000 m (9,800 and 13,100 ft) they average 7.8 °C (46.0 °F) and at 4,000–5,200 m (13,100–17,100 ft) elevation they average 0–6 °C (32–43 °F). At altitudes above 5,200 m (17,100 ft) they remain below freezing.
Vegetation, fauna and agriculture
Most of the region is covered by
The mountain has several distinct vegetation belts:
- Between 800 and 2,500 m (2,600 and 8,200 ft) lies cacti. Irrigation permits the cultivation of garlic, olive, onion, potato, rice, sugar cane and wheat. Pastures are also present.[228]
- The steppe vegetation is also present between 2,500 and 3,500 m (8,200 and 11,500 ft) in the "pre-Puna", but it is denser here[226] and includes shrubs of the family Asteraceae, such as Ambrosia, Diplostephium and Senecio.[70] Crops grown here include alfalfa, but there is also some dairy farming and the planting of eucalyptus and pine trees as a wood supply for the local population.[226]
- Between 3,000 and 4,000 m (9,800 and 13,100 ft) lies a so-called "supra-tropical facies" on soils overlying lava flows. It includes shrubs and terraced fields.[226] Dominant natural plants between 3,500 and 4,000 m (11,500 and 13,100 ft) include herbaceous plants of the families Fabaceae and Solanaceae, as well as shrubs of the Asteraceae.[70]
- Between 4,000 and 4,800 m (13,100 and 15,700 ft) vegetation is found in marshes and peat bogs where sufficient water is available, in the form of relic Polylepis woodlands as well as herbaceous puna vegetation[230] which is particularly prolific during the wet season. These areas are used for pasture of alpacas and llamas, and for fishing in wetlands and Polylepis woods; hamlets are found close to wetlands and forests.[226] Plant genera found here include Baccharis, Calamagrostis, Chuquiraga, Festuca, Parastrephia, Senecio and Stipa.[70]
- Above 4,800 m (15,700 ft) lies the so-called "Puna brava", with herbs and deep-rooted plants that have all adapted to withstand permafrost conditions.[231] The cushion plant, yareta, which is used as a fuel source, is the dominant plant in this belt.[232] Other plants from the Apiaceae and Asteraceae also occur.[88] Vegetation, including ichu grass and yareta, exist up to about five km (3.1 mi) elevation; higher elevations are unvegetated.[83]
Archaeology and religious importance
Numerous archaeological sites lie on Coropuna, especially at the southern and northern bases of the volcano and on its western slope.[28] Among these are funerary towers known as chullpas.[233] Some of these western sites are on the ice cap.[28] Proposals have been made to make the area of Coropuna including these archaeological sites into a protected area.[234]
The coastal regions of Peru were first occupied 11,000 and 9,000 years
Inca times
A larger number of archaeological sites go back to the 2nd Intermediate Period
As noted by Spanish chroniclers[244] such as Pedro Cieza de León,[245] Coropuna played an important role in Inca religion, and an important temple was situated there,[246] possibly at Maucallacta.[247] Pedro Cieza de León considered Coropuna to be the fifth most important holy site of the Inca empire.[245] One archaeological site on the volcano may have been a stopover for religious ceremonies to its summit.[248] Capacocha, a form of human sacrifice, were offered to the mountain;[244] reportedly, in 1965, a mummy was found there.[249]
Maucallacta and Acchaymarca
Among the archaeological sites at Coropuna is the important Inca site of Maucallacta, on the southwestern flank of the mountain.[250] Some of the structures there were built to evoke the appearance of the mountain.[251] A royal residence, an oracle and a political unit were associated with Maucallacta,[252] and the oracle of Coropuna would have answered the rulers' queries all year round.[253] The Maucallacta site was probably the most important one at Coropuna; the western summit today known as "La Niña" was apparently also significant.[254]
Another important site associated with Coropuna is Acchaymarca, to the west of the mountain,[255] where about 280 Inca stone structures have been found.[243] It is likely that many pilgrims came there for ceremonies honouring the apus of Coropuna and Solimana.[256]
Mythology, religion and legends
In the Inca Empire, Coropuna was a
An enduring
Climbing
The archaeological findings made on Coropuna indicate that the Inca may have reached the summit.
The rugged area offers mountaineering opportunities.[7] Coropuna is normally ascended from Laguna Pallarcocha, from where a route along the western rib and glacier slopes leads up to a fore-summit and then to the main summit. Along this way, a high camp can be set up at 5,600–5,800 m (18,400–19,000 ft) elevation. An ascent of Coropuna would normally be a three-day trip, and on the French adjectival climbing scale the route is graded as Facile (F). Pallarcocha itself can be reached from a road that begins in the town of Chuquibamba.[68]
Notes
- ^ Ash flows[3]
- ^ The age of man, including Pleistocene and Holocene.[4]
- ^ Villages on the lower slopes of Corpuna include: Ocororuro, Arma, Maucallacta, Purhua Purhua, Chaupipuna, Utchu-Amayani, Torilla, Patilla, Pallca, Alco Llacta, Viques, Campanayo, Pecoy, Tagre, Pillcull, Chupacca, Chipcama, Cabra Grande, Pampacolca, Huncor, Huanjo, Santa Maria, Toma de Hayllaura and Huayllaura.[28]
- ^ Other estimates of its height are 6,380 m (20,930 ft);[70][71] 6,426 m (21,083 ft)[32][55][2] on the western summit;[55] 6,446 m (21,148 ft);[72] and 6,450 m (21,160 ft).[10]
- ^ As cited in Forget et al (2008),[37] Palenque et al (2018),[81] Marinque et al (2018),[92] Silverio (2018),[93] Silverio, Herold & Peduzzi (2010),[103] and Silverio & Jaquet (2012).[104]
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- ^ Dornbusch 2002, p. 116.
- ^ de Silva & Francis 1990, p. 298.
- ^ a b c Venturelli et al. 1978, p. 214.
- ^ a b c "Volcanes monitoreados" [Monitored volcanoes]. Centro Vulcanológico Nacional (in Spanish). Ministerio del Ambiente. Archived from the original on 12 October 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
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- ^ Silverio, Herold & Peduzzi 2010, p. 320.
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- ^ a b Weide et al. 2017, p. 3.
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- ^ Engel et al. 2014, p. 63.
- ^ a b c Cuber, Panajew & Gałaś 2015, p. 67.
- ^ a b Marinque et al. 2018, p. 178.
- ^ a b c Silverio 2018, p. 45.
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Further reading
- De Silva, Shanaka L.; Francis, Peter (1991). Volcanoes of the Central Andes. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-53706-9.
- Reinhard, Johan (1999). "Coropuna: Lost Mountain Temple of the Incas". South American Explorers Journal. 58 (5): 26–30.
- Reinhard, Johan (2005). The Ice Maiden: Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes. ISBN 0-7922-6838-5.