Corporatism
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Corporatism |
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Corporatism is a political system of interest representation and policymaking whereby corporate groups, such as agricultural, labour, military, business, scientific, or guild associations, come together on and negotiate contracts or policy (collective bargaining) on the basis of their common interests.[1][2][3] The term is derived from the Latin corpus, or "body".
Corporatism does not refer to a political system dominated by large business interests, even though the latter are commonly referred to as "corporations" in modern American vernacular and legal parlance; instead, the correct term for this theoretical system would be
Corporatism developed during the 1850s in response to the rise of classical liberalism and Marxism, as it advocated cooperation between the classes instead of class conflict. Adherents of diverse ideologies, including fascism, communism, socialism, and liberalism have advocated for corporatist models.[1] Corporatism became one of the main tenets of fascism, and Benito Mussolini's fascist regime in Italy advocated the total integration of divergent interests into the state for the common good;[4] however, the more democratic neo-corporatism often embraced tripartism.[5][6]
Corporatist ideas have been expressed since ancient Greek and Roman societies, with integration into
Kinship corporatism
Kinship-based corporatism emphasizing clan, ethnic and family identification has been a common phenomenon in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Confucian societies based upon families and clans in East Asia and Southeast Asia have been considered types of corporatism. China has strong elements of clan corporatism in its society involving legal norms concerning family relations.[9][self-published source?] Islamic societies often feature strong clans which form the basis for a community-based corporatist society.[10] Family businesses are common worldwide in capitalist societies.
Politics and political economy
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Communitarian corporatism
Early concepts of corporatism evolved in
In Politics, Aristotle described society as being divided between natural classes and functional purposes: those of priests, rulers, slaves and warriors.[12] Ancient Rome adopted Greek concepts of corporatism into its own version of corporatism, adding the concept of political representation on the basis of function that divided representatives into military, professional and religious groups and set up institutions for each group known as collegia.[12]
After the 5th-century fall of Rome and the beginning of the
After the outbreak of the
Progressive corporatism
From the 1850s onward, progressive corporatism developed in response to
In his 1887 work
Corporatism in the Roman Catholic Church
In 1881,
Corporatism's popularity increased in the late 19th century and a corporatist internationale was formed in 1890, followed by the 1891 publishing of
Corporate solidarism
Sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) advocated a form of corporatism termed "solidarism" that advocated creating an organic social solidarity of society through functional representation.[31] Solidarism built on Durkheim's view that the dynamic of human society as a collective is distinct from the dynamic of an individual, in that society is what places upon individuals their cultural and social attributes.[32]
Durkheim posited that solidarism would alter the
Corporate solidarism is a form of corporatism that advocates creating
Liberal corporatism
John Stuart Mill discussed corporatist-like economic associations as needing to "predominate" in society to create equality for labourers and to give them influence with management by economic democracy.[34] Unlike some other types of corporatism, liberal corporatism does not reject capitalism or individualism, but believes that capitalist companies are social institutions that should require their managers to do more than maximize net income by recognizing the needs of their employees.[35]
This liberal corporatist ethic is similar to
Liberal corporatism began to gain disciples in the United States during the late 19th century.[15] Economic liberal corporatism involving capital-labour cooperation was influential in Fordism.[16] Liberal corporatism has also been an influential component of the liberalism in the United States that has been referred to as "interest group liberalism".[36]
Fascist corporatism
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A fascist corporation can be defined as a governmental entity incorporating workers' and employers' syndicates affiliated with the same profession and sector, with the aim of overseeing production in a comprehensive manner. Theoretically, each trade union within this structure assumes the responsibility of advocating for the interests of its respective profession, particularly through the negotiation of labor agreements and similar measures. Fascists theorized that this method could result in harmony amongst social classes.[37]
In Italy, from 1922 until 1943, corporatism became influential amongst Italian nationalists led by
When brought within the orbit of the State, Fascism recognizes the real needs which gave rise to socialism and trade unionism, giving them due weight in the guild or corporative system in which divergent interests are coordinated and harmonized in the unity of the State.[40]
[The state] is not simply a mechanism which limits the sphere of the supposed liberties of the individual... Neither has the Fascist conception of authority anything in common with that of a police ridden State... Far from crushing the individual, the Fascist State multiplies his energies, just as in a regiment a soldier is not diminished but multiplied by the number of his fellow soldiers.[40]
A popular slogan of the Italian Fascists under Mussolini was "Tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, nulla contro lo Stato" ("everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state").
Within the corporative model of Italian fascism each corporate interest was supposed to be resolved and incorporated under the state. Much of the corporatist influence upon Italian fascism was partly due to the Fascists' attempts to gain endorsement by the
The fascist state corporatism of Roman Catholic Italy influenced the governments and economies — not only of other Roman Catholic-majority countries, such as the governments of Engelbert Dollfuss in Austria, António de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal and Getúlio Vargas in Brazil[43] — but also of Konstantin Päts and Kārlis Ulmanis in non-Catholic Estonia and Latvia.[citation needed]
Fascists in non-Catholic countries also supported Italian Fascist corporatism, including Oswald Mosley of the British Union of Fascists, who commended corporatism and said that "it means a nation organized as the human body, with each organ performing its individual function but working in harmony with the whole".[44] Mosley also regarded corporatism as an attack on laissez-faire economics and "international finance".[44]
The corporatist state of Portugal had similarities to Benito Mussolini's Italian fascist corporatism, but also differences in its moral approach to governing.[45] Although Salazar admired Mussolini and was influenced by his Labour Charter of 1927,[46] he distanced himself from fascist dictatorship, which he considered a pagan Caesarist political system that recognised neither legal nor moral limits. Salazar also had a strong dislike of Marxism and liberalism.
In 1933, Salazar stated:
"Our Dictatorship clearly resembles a fascist dictatorship in the reinforcement of authority, in the war declared against certain principles of democracy, in its accentuated nationalist character, in its preoccupation of social order. However, it differs from it in its process of renovation. The fascist dictatorship tends towards a pagan Caesarism, towards a state that knows no limits of a legal or moral order, which marches towards its goal without meeting complications or obstacles. The Portuguese New State, on the contrary, cannot avoid, not think of avoiding, certain limits of a moral order which it may consider indispensable to maintain in its favour of its reforming action".[47]
Neo-corporatism
During the post-World War II reconstruction period in Europe, corporatism was favored by Christian democrats (often under the influence of Catholic social teaching), national conservatives and social democrats in opposition to liberal capitalism. This type of corporatism became unfashionable but revived again in the 1960s and 1970s as "neo-corporatism" in response to the new economic threat of recession-inflation.
Neo-corporatism is a democratic form of corporatism which favors economic
Attempts in the United States to create neo-corporatist capital-labor arrangements were unsuccessfully advocated by Gary Hart and Michael Dukakis in the 1980s. As secretary of labor during the Clinton administration, Robert Reich promoted neo-corporatist reforms.[48]
Contemporary examples by country
China
Jonathan Unger and Anita Chan in their essay "China, Corporatism, and the East Asian Model" describe Chinese corporatism as follows:[49]
[A]t the national level the state recognizes one and only one organization (say, a national labour union, a business association, a farmers' association) as the sole representative of the sectoral interests of the individuals, enterprises or institutions that comprise that organization's assigned constituency. The state determines which organizations will be recognized as legitimate and forms an unequal partnership of sorts with such organizations. The associations sometimes even get channelled into the policy-making processes and often help implement state policy on the government's behalf.
By establishing itself as the arbiter of legitimacy and assigning responsibility for a particular
The political scientist
The use of corporatism as a framework to understand the central state's behaviour in China has been criticized by authors such as Bruce Gilley and William Hurst.[51][52]
Hong Kong and Macau
In two
Ireland
Most members of the
The Constitution of Ireland of 1937 was influenced by Roman Catholic Corporatism as expressed in the papal encyclical, Quadragesimo anno (1931).[53][54]
The Netherlands
Under the Dutch
Slovenia
The Slovene National Council, the upper house of the Slovene Parliament, has 18 members elected on a corporatist basis.[56]
Western Europe
Generally supported by
The Nordic countries have the most comprehensive form of collective bargaining, where
See also
- Class collaboration
- Co-determination
- Conflict theories
- Corporate nationalism
- Corporate statism
- Cooperative
- Distributism
- Fascism
- Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
- Gremialismo
- Guild
- Guild socialism
- Holacracy
- Managerialism
- Mutualism (movement)
- Integralism
- National syndicalism
- Paritarian Institutions
- Pillarisation
- Solidarism (disambiguation)
- Third Position
- Proprietary corporation
Notes
- ^ ISSN 1094-2939.
- ^ Wiarda 1997, pp. 27, 141.
- ^ Clarke, Paul A. B; Foweraker, Joe (2001). Encyclopedia of democratic thought. London, UK; New York, US: Routledge. p. 113.
- ^ ISBN 0-415-21494-7.
- ^ Slomp, Hans (2000). European politics into the twenty-first century: integration and division. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers. p. 81.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-315-48105-0.
- ^ Wiarda 1997, pp. 31, 38, 44, 111, 124, 140.
- ^ Hicks 1988.
- ^ Bao-Er (2006). China's Neo-traditional Rights of the Child. Blaxland, Australia: Lulu. p. 19.
- ^ a b Wiarda 1997, p. 10.
- ^ a b Adler, Franklin Hugh. Italian Industrialists from Liberalism to Fascism: The Political Development of the Industrial Bourgeoisie, 1906–34. p. 349.
- ^ a b Wiarda 1997, p. 29.
- ^ a b c d Wiarda 1997, pp. 30–33.
- ^ a b Wiarda 1997, p. 33.
- ^ a b c d Wiarda 1997, p. 35.
- ^ a b c Jones, R. J. Barry (2001). Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries A–F. Taylor & Frances. p. 243.
- ^ Taylor, Keith, ed. (1975). Henri de Saint Simon, 1760–1825: Selected writings on science, industry and social organization. London.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Peter F. Klarén, Thomas J. Bossert. Promise of development: theories of change in Latin America. Boulder, Colorado, USA: Westview Press, 1986. P. 221.
- ^ Francis Ludwig Carsten, Hermann Graml. The German resistance to Hitler. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press. P. 93
- ^ Ferdinand Tönnies, José Harris. Community and civil society. Cambridge University Press, 2001 (first edition in 1887 as Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft). Pp. xxxii-xxxiii.
- ^ Wiarda 1997, p. 31.
- ^ Murchison, Carl Allanmore; llee, Warder Clyde (1967). A handbook of social psychology. Vol. 1. p. 150.
- ^ Morgan, Conwy Lloyd (2009). Animal Behaviour. Bibliolife, LLC. p. 14.
- ^ Wiarda 1997, p. 37.
- ^ Wiarda 1997, p. 38.
- ^ Bethell, Leslie (1993). Argentina Since Independence. Cambridge University Press. p. 229.
- ^ Rein, Monica (2016). Politics and Education in Argentina, 1946-1962. Routledge.
The Church's social concept presented an alternative to the Marxist and capitalist positions, both of which it saw as misguided. Justicialism sought to extend this line of thinking.
- ^ Aasmundsen, Hans Geir (2016). Pentecostals, Politics, and Religious Equality in Argentina. BRILL. p. 33.
- ^ Wiarda 1997, p. 39.
- ^ Wiarda 1997, p. 41.
- ^ a b c Antony Black, pp. 226.
- ^ Antony Black, pp. 223.
- ^ Antony Black, pp. 226, 228.
- ^ Gregg, Samuel. The commercial society: foundations and challenges in a global age. Lanham, USA; Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books, 2007. P. 109
- ^ a b Waring, Stephen P. Taylorism Transformed: Scientific Management Theory Since 1945. University of North Carolina Press, 1994. Pp. 193.
- ^ Wiarda 1997, p. 134.
- ISBN 0-679-43809-2.
- ^ Parlato, Giuseppe (2000). La sinistra fascista (in Italian). Bologna: Il Mulino. p. 88.
- ISBN 1-85728-595-6.
- ^ a b Mussolini – The Doctrine of Fascism
- ^ a b Morgan, Philip (2003). Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945. Routledge. p. 170.
- ^ Lewis, Paul H. (2006). Authoritarian regimes in Latin America: dictators, despots, and tyrants. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 131.
Fascism differed from Catholic corporatism by assigning the state the role of final arbiter, in the event that employer and labor syndicates failed to agree.
- ISBN 978-0-691-25816-4.
- ^ a b Eccleshall, Robert; Geoghegan, Vincent; Jay, Richard; Kenny, Michael; Mackenzie, Iain; Wilford, Rick (1994). Political Ideologies: An Introduction (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 208.
- ^ Kay 1970, pp. 50–51.
- ^ Wiarda 1997, p. 98.
- ^ Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review Vol. 92, No. 368, Winter, 2003
- ^ Waring, Stephen P. Taylorism Transformed: Scientific Management Theory Since 1945. University of North Carolina Press, 1994. Pp. 194.
- ^ "China,Corporatism,and the East Asian Model" Archived 2013-05-11 at the Wayback Machine. By Jonathan Unger and Anita Chan, 1994.
- S2CID 154845594.
- S2CID 155006410.
- ^ William Hurst (2007) "The City as the Focus: The Analysis of Contemporary Chinese Urban Politics’, China Information 20(30).
- ^ "The Constitution, family and care". The Irish Times.
- ISBN 978-1856355612.
- ^ The Social and Economic Council of the Netherlands (SER)
- JSTOR 48609481.
- ^ Overy 2004, p. 614.
- ^ Moschonas 2002, p. 64.
- ^ a b Rosser & Rosser 2003, p. 226.
References
- Black, Antony (1984). Guilds and civil society in European political thought from the twelfth century to present. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-416-73360-0.
- Kay, Hugh (1970). Salazar and Modern Portugal. New York: Hawthorn Books.
- Moschonas, Gerassimos (2002). In the Name of Social Democracy: The Great Transformation, 1945 to the Present. Translated by Elliott, Gregory. London, England: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-85984-639-1.
- Overy, Richard (2004). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia (illustrated, reprinted ed.). London, England: Allen Lane. ISBN 9780713993097.
- Wiarda, Howard J. (1997). Corporatism and comparative politics: the other great "ism". Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-1563247163.
Further reading
- Acocella, N. and Di Bartolomeo, G. [2007], "Is corporatism feasible?", in: Metroeconomica, 58(2): 340-59.
- Jones, Eric. 2008. Economic Adjustment and Political Transformation in Small States. Oxford University Press.
- Jones, R. J. Barry. Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries A-F. Taylor & Frances, 2001. ISBN 978-0-415-14532-9.
- Schmitter, P. (1974). "Still the Century of Corporatism?" The Review of Politics, 36(1), 85-131.
- Taha Parla and Andrew Davison, Corporatist Ideology in Kemalist Turkey Progress or Order?, 2004, Syracuse University Press, ISBN 0-8156-3054-9
On Italian corporatism
- Constitution of Fiume
- Rerum novarum: encyclical of Pope Leo XIII on capital and labor
- Quadragesimo Anno: encyclical of Pope Pius XI on reconstruction of the social order
On fascist corporatism and its ramifications
- Baker, David, "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?", New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006, pages 227–250.
- Marra, Realino, "Aspetti dell'esperienza corporativa nel periodo fascista", Annali della Facoltà di Giurisprudenza di Genova, XXIV-1.2, 1991–92, pages 366–79.
- There is an essay on "The Doctrine of Fascism" credited to Doctrine of Fascism. There are also links there to the complete text.
- My rise and fall, Volumes 1–2 – two autobiographies of Mussolini, editors Richard Washburn Child, Max Ascoli, Richard Lamb, Da Capo Press, 1998
- The 1928 autobiography of Benito Mussolini. Online. Archived 2008-05-04 at the ISBN 978-0-486-44777-3.
- Hicks, Alexander (1988). "Social Democratic Corporatism and Economic Growth". The Journal of Politics. 50 (3). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press: 677–704. S2CID 154785976.
On neo-corporatism
- ISBN 978-0-8014-9326-3.
- ISBN 978-0-674-53751-4.
- Schmitter, P. C. and Lehmbruch, G. (eds.). Trends toward Corporatist Intermediation. London, 1979. ISBN 978-0-8039-9837-7.
- Rodrigues, Lucia Lima. "Corporatism, liberalism and the accounting profession in Portugal since 1755." Journal of Accounting Historians, June 2003. Archived 2006-02-20 at the Wayback Machine
- Rosser, J. Barkley; Rosser, Marina V. (2003). Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-18234-8.
External links
- Encyclopedias
- Articles
- Professor Thayer Watkins, The economic system of corporatism Archived 2020-05-10 at the Wayback Machine, San Jose State University, Department of Economics.
- Chip Berlet, "Mussolini on the Corporate State", 2005, Political Research Associates.
- "Economic Fascism" by Thomas J. DiLorenzo, The Freeman, Vol. 44, No. 6, June 1994, Foundation for Economic Education; Irvington-on-Hudson, New York.[dead link]