Costoboci
The Costoboci (
Name etymology
The name of the tribe is attested in a variety of spellings in
According to Ion I. Russu, this is a Thracian compound name meaning "the shining ones".[5] The first element is the perfect passive participle Cos-to-, derived from the Proto-Indo-European root kʷek̂-, kʷōk̂- "to seem, see, show", and the second element is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root bhā-, bhō- "to shine", extended by the suffix -k-.[4] Ivan Duridanov considered it a Dacian name with unclear etymology.[6]
Some scholars argue that "Costoboci" has a Celtic etymology.[7]
N.B. Georgiev considers all etymologies based on
Territory
Mainstream modern scholarship locates this tribe to the north or north-east of
Material culture
Some scholars associate the Costoboci with the
The bearers of this culture had a sedentary lifestyle and practiced agriculture, cattle-breeding, iron-working and pottery.
Onomastics
A
Inscription
D(is) M(anibus)
ZIAI
TIATI FIL(iae)
DACAE. UXORI
PIEPORI. REGIS
COISSTOBOCENSIS
NATOPORUS ET
DRIGISA AVIAE
CARISS(imae) B(ene) M(erenti) FECER(unt)
Translation
"To the Spirits of the Dead. (Dedicated) to ZIA(IS) the Dacian, Daughter of TIATUS, Wife of PIEPORUS, Costobocan king. NATOPORUS and DRIGISA made (this memorial) for their most dear, well-deserving grandmother."
Name analysis
- Drigisa: a ThracianMoesia Superior. The final element -gis(s)a is frequent in Dacian onomastics.[38]
- Natoporus: a Thracianostraca found at Mons Claudianus in eastern Egypt.[43][44] A Roman military diploma was issued in 127 in Mauretania Caesariensis for a Dacian soldier and his two children, a son Nattoporis and a daughter Duccidava.[43][44] It is a name ending in -por, a frequent Thracian and Dacian onomastic element.[45][46][47][48] On a military diploma issued in 127 in Germania Inferior, a Dacian soldier's father is named Natusis, a name formed with the same first element nat- and a suffix -zi-/-si-.[43][44]
- Pieporus: a Thracian[49][50] or Dacian[45][37][48] name. It is a name ending in -por, a frequent Thracian and Dacian onomastic element.[45][46][47][48]
- Tiatus: a Thracian[51][52] or Dacian[53][37][54][48] name. Tiatus is maybe a name starting in thia-, typical for Dacians.[55][56] A name Tiato is attested on a fragmentary dipinto found at Maximianon, a Roman fort in eastern Egypt.[54]
- Zia or Ziais: a Thracian[57][58] or Dacian[59][37][48] name. Zia is a female name attested in Moesia Inferior.[58][59][48]
Ethnolinguistic affiliation
The ethnic and linguistic affiliation of the Costoboci is uncertain due to lack of evidence.[60] The mainstream view is that they were a Dacian tribe, among the so-called "Free Dacians" not subjected to Roman rule.[61][62][63] However some scholars suggested they were Thracian, Sarmatian,[64][14] Slavic,[65] Germanic,[66] Celtic,[citation needed] or Dacian with a Celtic superstratum.[67]
The evidence adduced in support of the main ethnic hypotheses may be summarised as follows:
Dacian
- Onomastics: The family of a Costobocan king called Pieporus (2nd century) had names considered by some scholars to be of Dacian origin .
- The rubric Dacpetoporiani on the Tabula Peutingeriana has been interpreted by some scholars as an elision of "Daci Petoporiani" meaning the "Dacians of King Petoporus".[49][68][69] Schütte argued Petoporus is one and the same as Pieporus, the king of the Costoboci.[70]
- Archaeology: The Costoboci have been linked, on the basis of their geographical location, with the Lipitsa culture.[71][72][73] This culture's features, especially its pottery styles and burial customs, have been identified as Dacian by some scholars,[74][75] leading to the conclusion that the Costoboci were an ethnic-Dacian tribe.[76]
- Name etymology: According to Schütte, the Dacian element -bokoi is also occurring in the name of another Dacian tribe, the Sabokoi.[77] However, Roger Batty argues that the Lipitsa culture is a poor fit for the Costoboci, not least because it appears to have disappeared during the 1st century BC, long before the period AD 100–200 when they are attested in and around Dacia by surviving historical documents.[28]
Thracian
- Onomastics: Some scholars consider the names of Pieporus and of his grandsons to be Thracian (see Onomastics, above).
- Archaeology: According to Jazdewski, in the early Roman period, on the Upper Dniestr, the features of the Lipitsa culture indicate ethnic Thracians under strong Celtic cultural influence, or who had simply absorbed Celtic ethnic components.[78]
- The fact that queen Zia is specifically characterised as "Dacian" may indicate that Pieporus and the Costoboci were not themselves Dacians.
Celtic
- The name Costoboci is considered by some scholars to be of Celtic etymology. In particular, they see the first element of their name as a corruption of coto-, a Celtic root meaning "old" or "crooked" (cf. Cotini, an eastern Celtic tribe in the same Carpathian region; Cottius, a king of the Celtic Taurini in the western Alps. One Pliny manuscript variant of the name Costoboci is Cotoboci). However, Faliyeyev argues that while possible, a Celtic derivation is less likely than an "autochthonous" one.[7]
- During the period 400–200 BC, Transylvania and Bessarabia saw intensive Celtic settlement, as evidenced by heavy concentrations of La Tène-type cemeteries.[79] Central Transylvania appears to have become a Celtic enclave or unitary kingdom, according to Batty.[80] Ptolemy lists 3 tribes as present in Transylvania: (west to east): the Taurisci, Anartes and Costoboci.[81] The first two are generally considered by scholars to be of Celtic origin.
- The Lipitsa culture displays numerous Celtic features.[78][82]
Scytho-Sarmatian
According to some scholars, the Costoboci were not a sedentary group at all, but a semi-nomadic steppe horse-based culture of
- The tribe called Cotobacchi (or Cotoboci or other manuscript variants) in a list of Sarmatian tribes in
- The statement by
- The presence, throughout the region identified by ancient geographers as inhabited by the Costoboci (SW Ukraine, northern Moldavia and Bessarabia), interspersed among the sites of sedentary cremation cultures such as Lipitsa, of distinct Sarmatian-style inhumation cemeteries dating from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD.[87]
- An inscription found in the
Conflict with Rome
During the rule of Marcus Aurelius, the Roman Empire fought the Marcomannic Wars, a vast and protracted struggle against Marcomanni, Quadi, and other tribes along the middle Danube. The Costoboci also joined the anti-Roman coalition at some stage.[94][92]
The invasion of 170/1
In AD 167 the Roman legion
Northern Balkans
Crossing the Danube, the Costoboci burnt down a district of
Greece
In his description of the city of Elateia in central Greece, the contemporaneous travel-writer Pausanias mentioned an incident involving the local resistance against the Costoboci:[107]
An army of bandits, called the Costobocs, who overran Greece in my day, visited among other cities Elateia. Whereupon a certain Mnesibulus gathered round him a company of men and put to the sword many of the barbarians, but he himself fell in the fighting. This Mnesibulus won several prizes for running, among which were prizes for the foot-race, and for the double race with shield, at the two hundred and thirty-fifth Olympic festival. In Runner Street at Elateia there stands a bronze statue of Mnesibulus.
Pausanias, Description of Greece, X, 34, 5.[108]
Thereafter, the barbarians reached
Even though much of the invasion force was spent, the local resistance was insufficient and the procurator Lucius Julius Vehilius Gratus Julianus was sent to Greece with a vexillatio to clear out the remnants of the invaders.[115][116][91][117] The Costoboci were thus defeated.[118][112]
Dacia
In the same period the Costoboci may have attacked Dacia. A bronze hand dedicated to Jupiter Dolichenus by a soldier from a cohort stationed in Dacia was found at Myszków in Western Ukraine. It has been suggested that this may have been loot from a Costobocan raid.[119][120][121] Some scholars suggest that it was during this turbulent period that members of King Pieporus' family were sent to Rome as hostages.[122][123][121][33]
The coming of the Vandals
Soon after AD 170,
See also
- Dacia (Roman province)
- Free Dacians
- Marcomannic Wars
Citations
- ^ Frazer 1898, p. 430
- ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), Cistoboci
- ^ Frazer 1898, p. 430.
- ^ a b Russu 1969, p. 116.
- ^ Russu 1969, p. 98.
- ^ Duridanov 1995, p. 836.
- ^ a b Faliyeyev 2007, "Costoboci".
- ^ Georgiev 1977, p. 271.
- ^ a b c d e von Premerstein 1912, p. 146.
- ^ Birley 2000, pp. 165, 167.
- ^ Talbert 2000, map 22.
- ^ a b c Frazer 1898, pp. 429–430.
- ^ a b c von Premerstein 1912, p. 145.
- ^ a b c d Ormerod 1997, p. 259.
- ^ a b c Batty 2008, p. 374.
- ^ a b c Russu 1959, p. 346.
- ^ Talbert 2000, pp. 336, 1209.
- ^ Talbert 2000, maps 22,84.
- ^ a b Den Boeft et al. 1995, p. 105.
- ^ Den Boeft et al. 1995, p. 138.
- ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 448.
- ^ Frazer 1898, p. 429.
- ^ Opreanu 1994, p. 197.
- ^ Schütte 1917, pp. 100–101.
- ^ Shchukin 1989, p. 285.
- ^ Bichir 1980, p. 445.
- ^ a b Shchukin 1989, pp. 285, 306.
- ^ a b Batty 2008, p. 375.
- ^ a b c d e Bichir 1980, p. 446.
- ^ Mikołajczyk 1984, p. 62.
- ^ a b Muratori 1740, p. 1039.
- ^ a b c Dessau 1892, p. 191.
- ^ a b Petersen & Wachtel 1998, p. 161.
- ^ a b Tomaschek 1980b, p. 35.
- ^ Detschew 1957, pp. 157–158.
- ^ Alföldi 1944, pp. 35, 47–48.
- ^ a b c d e f Georgiev 1983, p. 1212.
- ^ a b Dana 2003, p. 174.
- ^ a b Dana 2006, p. 119.
- ^ Tomaschek 1980b, p. 27.
- ^ Detschew 1957, p. 328.
- ^ Alföldi 1944, pp. 36, 48.
- ^ a b c d Dana 2003, p. 178.
- ^ a b c d Dana 2006, pp. 118–119.
- ^ a b c Alföldi 1944, pp. 36, 49.
- ^ a b Georgiev 1983, p. 1200.
- ^ a b Dana 2003, pp. 179–181.
- ^ a b c d e f Dana 2006, p. 118.
- ^ a b Tomaschek 1980b, p. 20.
- ^ Detschew 1957, p. 366.
- ^ Tomaschek 1980b, p. 36.
- ^ Detschew 1957, p. 503.
- ^ Alföldi 1944, pp. 37, 50.
- ^ a b Dana 2003, p. 180.
- ^ Dana 2003, pp. 179–180.
- ^ Dana 2006, pp. 109–110, 118.
- ^ Tomaschek 1980b, p. 40.
- ^ a b Detschew 1957, p. 186.
- ^ a b Alföldi 1944, pp. 37, 51.
- ^ a b Birley 2000, p. 165.
- ^ a b von Premerstein 1912, p. 147.
- ^ Batty 2008, p. 22.
- ^ Heather 2010, p. 131.
- ^ Frazer 1898, p. 535.
- ^ Müllenhoff 1887, pp. 84–87.
- ^ Musset 1994, pp. 52, 59.
- ^ Nandris 1976, p. 729.
- ^ Detschew 1957, p. 365.
- ^ Dana 2003, p. 179.
- ^ Schütte 1917, p. 82.
- ^ Shchukin 1989, p. 306.
- ^ Macrea 1970, p. 1039.
- ^ a b c Bichir 1976, p. 161.
- ^ Kazanski, Sharov & Shchukin 2006, p. 20.
- ^ Shchukin 1989, p. 280.
- ^ Bichir 1976, p. 164.
- ^ Schütte 1917, p. 99.
- ^ a b Jazdewski 1948, p. 76.
- ^ Twist 2001, p. 69.
- ^ Batty 2008, p. 279.
- ^ Ptolemy Geographia III.8.1
- ^ Sulimirski 1972, p. 104.
- ^ a b Mommsen 1996, p. 315.
- ^ Pliny NH VI.6
- ^ Talbert 2000, pp. 336, 1209, maps 22, 84.
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus. XXII.8.42
- ^ Batty 2008, map.
- ^ Marquand 1895, p. 550.
- ^ Frazer 1898, pp. 429, 535.
- ^ Chirică 1993, p. 158.
- ^ a b c d e f Kovács 2009, p. 198.
- ^ a b c d Croitoru 2009, p. 402.
- ^ Colledge 2000, p. 981.
- ^ Kovács 2009, pp. 201, 216.
- ^ Aricescu 1980, pp. 11, 46.
- ^ Kovács 2009, p. 207.
- ^ a b c d Aricescu 1980, p. 46.
- ^ Cortés 1995, pp. 191–193.
- ^ Birley 2000, p. 168.
- ^ Scheidel 1990.
- ^ a b c d Johnson 2011, p. 206.
- ^ a b c Matei-Popescu 2003–2005, p. 309.
- ^ a b c d Petolescu 2007, p. 377.
- ^ Aricescu 1980, p. 86.
- ^ Tocilescu 1903, p. 31.
- ^ Basotova 2007, p. 409.
- ^ a b c Robertson Brown 2011, p. 80.
- ^ Jones 1935, p. 577.
- ^ Birley 2000, pp. 164–165.
- ^ Robertson Brown 2011, pp. 80, 82.
- ^ Cortés 1995, pp. 188–191.
- ^ a b Robertson Brown 2011, p. 82.
- ^ Clinton 2005, pp. 414–416.
- ^ Schuddeboom 2009, pp. 213–214, 231.
- ^ Kłodziński 2010, pp. 7, 9.
- ^ Birley 2000, pp. 165, 168.
- ^ Robertson Brown 2011, pp. 81–82.
- ^ a b Croitoru 2009, p. 403.
- ^ AE 1998, p. 1113.
- ^ Croitoru 2009, p. 404.
- ^ a b Opreanu 1997, p. 248.
- ^ Mateescu 1923, p. 255.
- ^ Bichir 1980, p. 449.
- ^ a b c Opreanu 1997, p. 249.
- ^ Kovács 2009, p. 228.
- ^ a b c Merrills & Miles 2010, p. 27.
- ^ a b c Birley 2000, p. 170.
- ^ Parker 1958, p. 24.
- ^ Schütte 1917, p. 143.
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