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The Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was the executive and administrative organ of the highest body of state authority, the All-Union Supreme Soviet. It was formed on 30 December 1922 and abolished on 26 December 1991. The government was headed by a chairman, most commonly referred to as the premier of the Soviet Union, and several deputy chairmen throughout its existence. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), as "The leading and guiding force of Soviet society and the nucleus of its political system" per Article 6 of the state constitution, controlled the government by holding a two-thirds majority in the All-Union Supreme Soviet. The government underwent several name changes throughout its history, and was known as the Council of People's Commissars from 1922 to 1946, the Council of Ministers from 1946 to 1991, the Cabinet of Ministers from January to August 1991 and the Committee on the Operational Management of the National Economy from August to December 1991.
The government chairman was nominated by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and elected by delegates at the first plenary session of a newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Certain governments, such as Ryzhkov's second government, had more than 100 government ministers, serving as first deputy premiers, deputy premiers, government ministers or heads of state committees/commissions; they were chosen by the premier and confirmed by the Supreme Soviet. The Government of the Soviet Union exercised its executive powers in conformity with the constitution of the Soviet Union and legislation enacted by the Supreme Soviet. The first government was led by Vladimir Lenin, and the last government was led by Valentin Pavlov.
Following the
Etymology
The name Council of People's Commissars was chosen to distinguish the Soviet government from its bourgeois counterparts, especially its tsarist predecessor the Council of Ministers.[1] However, scholar Derek Watson states that "the term 'commissar' was regarded as interchangeable with 'minister', and there seems little doubt that the Bolshevik leaders meant 'minister'."[2] Joseph Stalin, in a speech to the II Supreme Soviet in March 1946, argued to change the name of government from Council of People's Commissars to Council of Ministers because "The commissar reflects the period of revolutionary rupture and so on. But that time has now passed. Our social system has come into being and is now made flesh and blood. It is time to move on from the title 'people's commissar' to that of 'minister.'"[3] Scholar Yoram Gorlizki writes that "Notwithstanding the reversion to bourgeois precedents, the adoption of the new nomenclature signaled that the Soviet order had entered a new phase of postrevolutionary consolidation."[3]
History
Revolutionary beginnings and Molotov's chairmanship (1922–1941)
The
The original idea was for the Council of People's Commissars to report directly (and be subordinate) to the CEC, but the working relations of the two bodies were never clearly defined in depth.
The 1924 constitution differentiated between All-Union and unified (referred to as republican from 1936 onwards) people's commissariats.[7] The people's commissariats for justice, internal affairs, social security, education, agriculture and public health remained republican-level ministries.[7] In the meantime the commissariats for foreign affairs, commerce and industry, transport, military and navy affairs, finance, foreign trade, labour, post and telegraphs, supply and the interior were granted All-Union status.[7] This system created troubles at first since neither the constitution or any legal document defined the relations between All-Union commissariats, their organs in republics and the separate unified republican commissariats.[7] However, this system was kept with minor changes until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.[7]
The 1936 constitution defined the Council of People's Commissars as the Soviet government, and conferring upon it the role of the "highest executive and administrative organ of state power".[6] The constitution stripped the Council of People's Commissars of powers to initiate legislation, and instead confined it to issuing "decrees and regulations on the basis and in execution of the laws currently in force".[6] Only the Supreme Soviet and its Presidium, having replaced the Congress of Soviets and the Central Executive Committee respectively, could alter laws.[6]
High Stalinism (1941–1953)
Stalin's power grab in the 1930s had weakened the formal institutions of governance, both in the party and government.[8] Scholar T. H. Rigby writes that "all institutions had gradually dissolved in the acid of
Stalin was elected to the government chairmanship on 6 May 1941.
The government's Bureau was established in 1944.[12] After the war, the bureau was split into two.[10] These bureaus were merged on 20 March 1946, reestablishing the government's Bureau.[13] The party Politburo adopted on 8 February 1947 the resolution "On the Organization of the Council of Ministers", which sought to explain the role of the Council of Ministers, its internal operations and its relationship with the party.[14] It stated that the party politburo had the right to decide on all political matters, which included such topics as governmental appointments and defense, foreign policy and internal security.[14] It went on to define the government solely as an institution of administering the economy.[14] The non-economic ministries, such as the Ministry of State Security, reported to the politburo.[14]
In addition, the 8 February resolution established eight sectoral bureaus; Bureau for Agriculture, Bureau for Metallurgy and Chemicals, Bureau for Machine Construction, Bureau for Fuel and Electric Power Stations, Bureau for Food Industry, Bureau for Transport and Communication, Bureau for Light Industry and Bureau for Culture and Health.[13] This decision transformed the government's working methods.[15] The new resolution delegated authorities to the bureaus and away from the deputy chairmen of government and high-standing ministers.[15] Every sectoral bureau was headed by a deputy chairman of government, but decision-making was devolved into these collegial decision-making organs.[16] The net effect of these change was to greatly increase the legislative activity of government.[16]
Stalin, who had not attended a meeting of the Bureau since 1944, resorted to appointing acting government chairmen.[17] Molotov was first appointed, but could rarely fulfill his duties since he was simultaneously Minister of Foreign Affairs and often away on business.[17] On 29 March 1948 the politburo resolved to create a rotational chairmanship headed by Lavrentiy Beria, Nikolai Voznesensky and Georgy Malenkov.[18] Lacking a formal leader, most controversial issues were solved at meetings of the Bureau.[18] On 1 September 1949 power was even more dispersed.[18] The Bureau changed its name to the Presidium of the Council of Ministers, and Beria, Malenkov, Nikolai Bulganin, Lazar Kaganovich and Maksim Saburov were handed the chairmanship.[18] This mode of operating lasted until Stalin's death in 1953.[19]
Post-Stalin Era (1953–1985)
The Post-Stalin Era saw several changes to the government apparatus, especially during Nikita Khrushchev's leadership.[20] At first, the new leadership sought to solve problems within the existing bureaucratic framework, however, by 1954 the government initiated reforms which devolve more economic decision-making to the republican governments.[21] Around this time Khrushchev suggested abolishing the industrial and construction ministries and distributing their duties and responsibilities to republican governments and regional bureaucrats.[21] The end-goal was to reduce the size of the All-Union government and increase economic growth.[21] A similar idea was proposed to the CPSU Presidium in January 1957.[21] The proposal sought to switch the function of the All-Union government from active management of operational management of industry to active branch policy-making.[21] Operational management was to be decentralised to republican governments and local authorities.[21]
The CPSU Presidium adopted Khrushchev's proposal.[21] By July 1957 the management functions of the construction and industrial ministries had been transferred to 105 newly established Soviets of the National Economy.[21] Republican planning committees were given more responsibility, while the State Planning Committee was given responsibility over companies that could not be decentralised to republican governments.[21] The Soviet media began propagating the idea of developing complex, regional economies and comparing them to the old ministerial system.[21] The belief was that the Soviets of the National economy would increase inter-branch cooperation and specialization.[21] However, the reforms did not manage to cure the failings of the Soviet economy, and actually showed shortcomings in other areas as well.[22] Khrushchev's government responded by initiating reforms that reversed decentralisation measures, and sought to recentralise control over resource allocation.[22]
Brezhnev government
The removal of Khrushchev was followed by reversing his reforms of the government apparatus. The first move came in early 1965 when
The Brezhnev Era also saw the adoption of the 1977 constitution.[25] It defined for the first time the responsibilities and membership of the government's Presidium.[25] The constitution defined the Presidium as a permanent governmental organ responsible for establishing and securing good economic leadership and to assume administrative responsibilities.[25] It stated that the government chairman, alongside the first deputy chairmen, deputy chairmen and the republican governmental heads made up the Presidium's membership.[25]
Presidentialism and the Cabinet of Ministers (1990–1991)
Gorbachev had been speaking critically of the idea of a Soviet presidency until October 1989.[26] He had argued that a presidency could lead to the reestablishment of the cult of personality and one-man leadership.[26] However, Gorbachev was meeting stiff resistance from bureaucrats and anti-reformist elements against his reformist policies.[26] The establishment of the office of President of the Soviet Union was seen as an important tool to strengthen Gorbachev's control over the state apparatus.[26] Gorbachev proposed to the 3rd Plenary Session of the XXI Supreme Soviet in February 1990 to establish the Office of the President of the Soviet Union.[26] The Supreme Soviet passed the motion, and in March an Extraordinary Session of the Congress of People's Deputies was convened to amend the constitution.[26] The Law on the Presidency which was adopted by the Congress of People's Deputies stated that the president had to be elected in a nationwide election, but Gorbachev argued that the country was not ready for divisive election.[26] Therefore, the Congress of People's Deputies held a vote in which 1329 voted to elect Gorbachev as President of the Soviet Union, while 916 voted against him.[26]
As President of the Soviet Union Gorbachev could appoint and dismiss government ministers.
By November 1990 Gorbachev was calling for the dissolution of the Council of Ministers and its replacement with a Cabinet of Ministers.[30] Formerly executive power had been divided into two separate institutions; the presidency and the Council of Ministers. Both reported to the Supreme Soviet.[30] The Cabinet of Ministers would report directly to the President of the Soviet Union, and be accountable to both the presidency and to the Supreme Soviet.[30] While the term of the Council of Ministers had been tied to the election of the Supreme Soviet, the Cabinet of Ministers was obliged by law to tender its resignation if the sitting president stepped down.[31] Similar to the Council of Ministers, the leading decision-making organ of the Cabinet of Ministers was the Presidium.[31] It was to be chaired by the newly created office of Prime Minister of the Soviet Union.[31] In accordance with law the Presidium had to consist of the prime minister, his first deputies, deputies and an Administrator of Affairs.[31]
The duties and responsibilities of the Cabinet of Ministers overlapped with the former Council of Ministers.
The Council of Ministers had been the sole permanent executive and administrative body in the Soviet Union during its existence.
The Cabinet of Ministers was by law forced to work more closely with republican governments than the Council of Ministers.
Government breakdown (1991)
The
On 25 December 1991 Gorbachev announced in a televised speech his resignation from the post of
Duties, functions and responsibilities
The government was the highest executive and administrative body of the Soviet state.[41] It was formed at the 1st Plenary Session of the Supreme Soviet (the joint meeting of the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities), and had to consist of the government chairman, his first deputies, deputies, ministers, state committees chairmen and the republican governmental chairmen. The premier could recommend individuals who he found suitable for membership in the governmental council to the Supreme Soviet. The government tendered its resignation to the first plenary session of a newly elected Supreme Soviet.[42]
The government was responsible to the Supreme Soviet and its Presidium. It regularly reported to the Supreme Soviet on its work,[43] as well as being tasked with resolving all state administrative duties in the jurisdiction of the USSR which were not the responsibility of the Supreme Soviet or the Presidium. Within its limits, the government had responsibility for:[44]
- Management of the union's economy and socio-cultural construction and development.
- Formulation and submission of the five-year plans for "economic and social development" to the Supreme Soviet along with the state budget.
- Defence of the interests of state, socialist property, public order and to protect the rights of Soviet citizens.
- Ensuring state security.
- General policies for the Soviet armed forcesand determination of how many citizens were to be drafted into service.
- General policies concerning Soviet foreign relations and trade, economic, scientific-technical and cultural cooperation of the USSR with foreign countries as well as the power to confirm or denounce international treaties signed by the USSR.
- Creation of necessary organisations within the government concerning economics, socio-cultural development and defence.
The government could issue decrees and resolutions and later verify their execution. All organisations were obliged to obey the decrees and resolutions issued by the government.[45] The All-Union Council also had the power to suspend all mandates and decrees issued by itself or organisations subordinate to it.[46] The Council coordinated and directed the work of the union republics and union ministries, state committees and other organs subordinate to it.[47] The competence of the government and its Presidium with respect to their procedures and activities and the council's relationships with subordinate organs were defined in the Soviet constitution by the Law on the Council of Ministers of the USSR.[48]
Each union republic and autonomous republic had its own governments formed by the republican legislature of the respective union republic or autonomous republic. Republican governments were not legally subordinate to the All-Union government, but they were obliged in their activities to be guided by the decrees and decisions of the All-Union government. At the same time, the union-republican ministries had double subordination – they simultaneously submitted to the union republican government, within the framework of which they were created, and to the corresponding all-union government, orders and instructions which should have been guided in their activities. In contrast to the union republican ministries of the union republic, the republican ministries were subordinate only to the government of the corresponding union republic.
Party-government relations
Lenin sought to create a governmental structure that was independent of the party apparatus.
Leadership
Chairman
The government chairman was until the establishment of the Cabinet of Ministers in 1991 the Soviet head of government.[51] The officeholder was responsible for convening the government and its Presidium, reporting to the Supreme Soviet on behalf of the government and leading the work on formulating the five-year plans.[51] The "Law on the Council of Ministers of the USSR" states that the chairman "heads the Government and directs its activity... coordinates the activity of the first deputy chairmen and deputy chairmen [and] in urgent cases, makes decisions on particular questions of state administration."[51]
Deputy Chairmen
The government appointed first deputy chairmen and deputy chairmen to assist the work of the government chairman.
Administrator of Affairs
The Administrator of Affairs was tasked with co-signing decrees and resolutions made by government with the government chairman.[53] The government apparatus prepared items of policy, which the officeholder would check systematically against decrees of the party-government.[53] This function consisted of several departments and other structural units. In addition the Administrator of Affairs headed the government apparatus and was a member of the government's Presidium.[53]
Presidium
The Presidium of the Council of Ministers consisted of the chairman, First Deputy Chairmen, and the deputy chairman. It is important to note that the Presidium of the Council of Ministers is different than the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet.
Organisation
Committees
USSR state committees were different from the ministries in that a state committee was primarily responsible for several parts of government as opposed to the one specific topic for which a ministry was solely responsible.[54] Therefore, many state committees had jurisdiction over certain common activities performed by ministries such as research and development, standardisation, planning, building construction, state security, publishing, archiving and so on. The distinction between a ministry and a state committee could be obscure as for the case of the Committee for State Security (KGB).[55]
Ministries
According to the Soviet constitution, ministries were divided into all-union and union-republican. All-Union ministries managed the branch of state administration entrusted to them throughout the entire Soviet Union directly or through the organs appointed by them, while the union-republican ministries operated, as a rule, through the same-named ministry of the specific union republic in question. It managed only a certain limited number of activities directly according to the list approved by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet.
The government had the right to create, reorganize and abolish subordinate institutions, which were directly subordinate to the government itself.
Publications
- The newspaper Izvestia
- "Bulletin of the Central Executive Committee, the Council of People's Commissars and the Council of Labor and Defense of the Soviet Union" (1923–1924);
- "Collection of laws and regulations of the Workers' and Peasants' Government of the Soviet Union"[56] (1924–1938);
- "Collection of decrees and orders of the Government of the Soviet Union" (1938–1946).
See also
- Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War § Government
- Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union § Government
- Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union § Government and politics
- List of Governments of the Soviet Union
- List of heads of government of Russia
- List of heads of state of the Soviet Union
- Premier of the Soviet Union
Notes
- ^ a b Watson 2016, p. 1.
- ^ Watson 2016, pp. 1–2.
- ^ a b c Gorlizki 2002, p. 703.
- ^ Watson 2016, p. 2.
- ^ a b Watson 2016, p. 6.
- ^ a b c d e Watson 2016, p. 7.
- ^ a b c d e Watson 2016, p. 14.
- ^ a b c d Gorlizki 2002, p. 699.
- ^ Gorlizki 2002, p. 736.
- ^ a b Gorlizki 2002, p. 704.
- ^ Gorlizki 2002, pp. 699–700.
- ^ Gorlizki 2002, p. 706.
- ^ a b Rees 2003, p. 215.
- ^ a b c d Gorlizki 2002, p. 705.
- ^ a b Gorlizki 2002, p. 707.
- ^ a b Gorlizki 2002, p. 709.
- ^ a b Gorlizki 2002, p. 712.
- ^ a b c d Gorlizki 2002, p. 713.
- ^ Gorlizki & Khlevniuk 2005, p. 104.
- ^ Kibita 2013, pp. 1–2.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Kibita 2013, p. 3.
- ^ a b Kibita 2013, p. 4.
- ^ Nove 1987, pp. 86–89.
- ^ Hough & Fainsod 1979, pp. 253–255.
- ^ a b c d Feldbrugge 1993, pp. 158–159.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Huskey 1992, p. 107.
- ^ a b c Huskey 1992, p. 108.
- ^ a b Huskey 1992, p. 109.
- ^ "Soviet Union – The U.S.S.R. from 1953 to 1991". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
- ^ a b c Huskey 1992, p. 110.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Huskey 1992, p. 111.
- ^ a b c Huskey 1992, p. 112.
- ^ a b c d Huskey 1992, p. 119.
- ^ a b c d e f Huskey 1992, p. 120.
- ^ a b c Huskey 1992, p. 121.
- ISBN 1-59213-362-2.
- ^ Указ Президента СССР от 24.08.1991 N УП-2461 "О Кабинете Министров СССР"
- ISBN 0-415-07580-7.
- ^ Постановление Верховного Совета СССР от 28 августа 1991 г. № 2367-I «О недоверии Кабинету Министров СССР»
- ^ "Silaev, Ivan Stepanovich" [Силаев, Иван Степанович]. Praviteli. Archived from the original on 7 May 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 128. .
- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 129. .
- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 130. .
- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 131. .
- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 133. .
- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 134. .
- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 135. .
- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) of 7 October 1977 Article 136. .
- ^ Watson 2016, p. 3.
- ^ a b c d Watson 2016, p. 4.
- ^ a b c Huskey 1992, p. 33.
- ^ a b c d e Huskey 1992, p. 34.
- ^ a b c d Кабинет Министров СССР. 5 июля 1978 «ЗАКОН О СОВЕТЕ МИНИСТРОВ СССР». (Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. 5 July 1978 Law of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. ).
- ^ Schapiro 1977, p. 127.
- ISBN 978-1-56324-060-7.
- ^ On the order of publication of the laws and orders of the Government of the Soviet Union: Decree of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union and the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union of August 22, 1924.
Bibliography
- Churchward, L.G. (1975). Contemporary Soviet Government. ISBN 978-0-7100-8202-2.
- Feldbrugge, F. J. M. (1993). Russian Law: The End of the Soviet System and the Role of Law. ISBN 0-79232-359-9.
- Gorlizki, Y. (2002). "Ordinary Stalinism: The Council of Ministers and the Soviet Neopatrimonial State, 1946–1953". The Journal of Modern History. 74 (4). The University of Chicago Press: 699–736. S2CID 144039204.
- ISBN 0-19530-420-9.
- Harris, J. (2008). Party Leadership under Stalin and Khrushchev: Party Officials and the Soviet State, 1948–1964. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-49852-839-9.
- Hough, J; Fainsod, Merle (1979). How the Soviet Union is Governed. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- Huskey, E. (1992). Executive Power and Soviet Politics: The Rise and Decline of the Soviet State. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 1-56324-059-9.
- Kibita, N. (2013). Soviet Economic Management under Khrushchev: The Sovnarkhoz Reform. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-60568-7.
- ISBN 0-04335-042-9.
- Rees, E. A. (2003). The Nature of Stalin's Dictatorship: The Politburo 1928–1953. Springer. ISBN 0-23052-428-1.
- ISBN 978-0-09-131721-8.
- Watson, D. (2016). Molotov and Soviet Government: Sovnarkom, 1930–41. Springer. ISBN 978-1-34924-848-3.