Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes
The Count of Vergennes | |
---|---|
Louis XV | |
Preceded by | François de Modène |
Succeeded by | Pierre d'Usson de Bonnac |
Personal details | |
Born | Non-partisan | 29 December 1719
Spouse |
Anne Duvivier (m. 1730–1787) |
Children | Constantin Louis |
Profession | Diplomat, statesman |
Signature | |
Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes (French pronunciation:
Vergennes rose through the ranks of the diplomatic service during postings in Portugal and Germany before receiving the important post of Envoy to the Ottoman Empire in 1755. While there he oversaw complex negotiations that resulted from the Diplomatic Revolution before being recalled in 1768. After assisting a pro-French faction to take power in Sweden, he returned home and was promoted to foreign minister.
Vergennes hoped that by giving French aid to the American revolutionaries he would be able to weaken British dominance of the international stage, in the wake of that kingdom's victory over France in the recent Seven Years' War. Alliance with the revolutionaries produced mixed results for France as, despite helping to defeat Britain and secure American independence, he extracted little material gain from the war and the costs of fighting further damaged the already weakened French royal finances in the years before the French Revolution.
In part as a result of his efforts in crafting the American alliance, Vergennes became a dominant figure in French politics during the 1780s. He died on the eve of the revolution in his own nation.
Early life
Charles Gravier was born in
Diplomatic service
Portugal and Bavaria
The objective of Chavigny and Vergennes in Lisbon was to keep Portugal from entering the War of the Austrian Succession on the side of Britain, a task that proved relatively easy as the Portuguese had little interest in joining the war.[4] In 1743 Vergennes accompanied his uncle to the court of Charles VII who was the ruler of Bavaria and also held the title of Holy Roman Emperor. Charles VII was a key ally of the French in the ongoing war against Austria, and they were charged with keeping him in the war by assuaging his concerns which they accomplished successfully.[5] They next were instrumental in the agreement of the Union of Frankfurt, a pact involving several German rulers to uphold Charles VII's interests. after Charles VII's sudden death in 1745, they strove to help his successor Maximilian III but were unable to prevent him from losing his capital at Munich and making peace with the Austrians at the Treaty of Füssen.[6] In November 1745 Chavigny was relieved of his post, and returned to France accompanied by Vergennes. The following year they returned to Portugal to take up their previous posts there where they remained until 1749, unsuccessfully trying to negotiate a commercial treaty.[7]
Congress of Hanover
After their return home, Vergennes and his uncle were now in favour with the French Foreign Minister
The British strategy was directed by the
In 1752 an attempt to settle the matter, Newcastle travelled to Hanover where
The Congress was regarded as a diplomatic triumph for Vergennes and he received praise from Newcastle for his skills. To counter a last attempt by Austria to get an agreement, Vergennes was sent to the Palatine in January 1753 where he secured confirmation that they would stick to France's strategy. He then returned to Trier where he spent fourteen quiet months before he was given his next posting.[11] His time in Germany shaped his views on diplomacy. He was critical of the British tendency of bowing to public opinion because of their democracy, and he was concerned by the rising power of Russia.[12]
Ottoman Empire
His successful advocacy of French interests in Germany led him to believe his next posting would be as Ambassador to Bavaria.
Vergennes arrived in Constantinople as the Seven Years' War was brewing and Osman III had recently come to the throne. The Ottomans were traditional allies of the French and were a major trading partner, but the weakening of Ottoman power and the growth of Russia threatened the old system. Despite their close ties, the two states had no formal alliance. In his official orders, Vergennes was ordered not to agree any treaty, but he received secret instructions from the king to agree a treaty if it supported the king's schemes in Eastern Europe.[15]
Vergennes's task was to try to persuade the Ottomans to counter the Russian threat to Poland, working in conjunction with Prussia. The Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 turned that scheme upside down as France became friendly to and then allied to Austria and Russia and an enemy of Prussia, which forced Vergennes to reverse his anti-Russian rhetoric. The Ottoman leadership were angered by the new Franco-Austrian Alliance, which they saw as hostile towards them.[16] Vergennes spent the next few years trying to repair relations and persuade the Turks not to attack Austria or Russia, as they were being urged to do by Prussian envoys.[17]
Towards the end of the Seven Years' War, Vergennes tackled several new problems. A dramatic reversal of Russian policies following the succession of Peter III forced Vergennes to return to his previous policy of encouraging anti-Russian sentiment, only to change again when Peter was overthrown by his wife, Catherine. Vergennes also had to deal with the consequences of the theft of the Sultan's flagship by Christian prisoners, who took it to Malta. The Sultan threatened to build up a large fleet and invade the island, potentially provoking a major war in the Mediterranean in which France would have to defend Malta in spite of the global war that it was already fighting. Eventually, a compromise was agreed in which the French negotiated the return of the ship, but not the prisoners, to the Sultan.[18]
The Treaty of Paris in 1763 brought an end to the war, but France was forced to cede significant territory to the British, easing some of the strains on Vergennes. However, he was left personally disappointed by the decline in French prestige. He was also alarmed by the weakening of French influence in Poland, which, in 1764, elected Stanislas Poniatowski, a Russian-backed candidate, as its king after it became apparent that France was powerless to prevent it. Vergennes's efforts to convince the Ottomans to intervene in the election were undermined by a failure to settle on a single French candidate for the throne, and both France and the Ottomans were eventually forced to acknowledge Stanislas as king. As he was a lover of Catherine the Great, it was believed that Poland would become a satellite of Russia or even that the two states might be merged.[19]
Marriage and recall
In 1768, he was recalled, ostensibly because he married the widow Anne Duvivier (1730–1798), also known as de Viviers;[20] they previously lived together while she was the ambassador's mistress. In addition, Gravier married her without seeking the King's consent. She was the widow of Francesco Testa (c. 1720–1754), a merchant member of one of the oldest and distinguished Latin families of Péra, originally from Genoa. She was widowed at the age of 24, before she met Charles Gravier, and they had two daughters together. The painter Antoine de Favray who was living in Istanbul at this time painted Charles Gravier's wife, Annette Duvivier, Comtesse de Vergennes, in an oriental costume, sitting on a divan, shortly before they married.[20][21]
However, Charles Gravier was more probably recalled because the
Vergennes's marriage had taken place without the King's consent, which was a requirement for French ambassadors. In France Vergennes encountered strong disapproval of his marriage and was aware that he returned home in disgrace. In spite of his doubts, Vergennes was successful in persuading the Ottomans to declare war against Russia, and in 1768 the
Sweden
After Choiseul's dismissal in 1770, Vergennes was sent to
Foreign minister
Appointment
With the accession of King
American War of Independence
Vergennes' rivalry with the British, and his desire to avenge the disasters of the
Entry into the war
Long before France's open entry into the war, Vergennes approved of
Although Vergennes had long planned for France to enter the war jointly with Spain, Charles III was more interested in mediating the dispute, as he did not want to encourage colonial revolts. Vergennes pressed ahead with his alliance, in agreement with the American envoy Benjamin Franklin, which would almost certainly lead to war with Britain. In the wake of the Franco-American agreement, the Americans rejected British peace offers made by the Carlisle Peace Commission.
Strategy
Despite American rebels' optimism related to France's entry into the war, the new forces did not quickly affect the balance of power in North America. A fleet under
In 1779, Spain's entry into the war against the British made the Allies' joint fleet considerably larger than the British Royal Navy, but their attempted invasion of Britain that year miscarried. This seriously undermined Vergennes' plans, as he had anticipated a swift and simple war against the British. It promised to be considerably more difficult and expensive than he had hoped.
League of Armed Neutrality
By a series of negotiations, Vergennes sought to secure the
Vergennes acted as an intermediary in the
Yorktown
The first French expedition to America under d'Estaing returned to France in 1779. The following year, another fleet was dispatched under
The Expédition Particulière, a sizable force of French soldiers under the comte de Rochambeau, arrived in America in July 1780. In October 1781, the French force played a key role in the surrender of a British army at Yorktown. In spite of the large British military presence in the colonies and its continued control of several major cities, in early 1782, the British parliament passed a resolution suspending further offensives against the Americans. This did not apply to their other enemies in other theatres of war.[28]
1782
After the success at Yorktown, the French fleet went to the West Indies as part of a plan to invade Britain's colony of Jamaica. In April 1782 at the Battle of the Saintes, the French fleet suffered a major defeat and de Grasse was captured by the British. Both France and Britain understood this victory to restore British control of the high seas.[29] Since 1779, Allied forces had laid siege to the British base at Gibraltar. In 1782, a major Franco-Spanish attack on Gibraltar failed, and the fort was relieved shortly afterward. This presented a major problem to Vergennes, as his treaty of alliance with the Spanish had committed the French to keep fighting until Gibraltar was under Spanish control. Failure to gain control of Gibraltar could potentially extend the war indefinitely.
These two defeats undermined the French confidence that had greeted the success at Yorktown. Vergennes grew increasingly pessimistic about allied prospects during the coming year. By this stage, peace negotiations were well underway. During 1782, Vergennes committed French troops to put down a democratic revolution in the
Treaty of Paris
By 1782 Vergennes was growing increasingly frustrated by what he regarded as the inability of the United States to justify its use of the large sums of money which France had given them. He remarked to Lafayette, who had recently returned from America, "I am not marvelously pleased with the country that you have just left. I find it barely active and very demanding."[31] Although he continued to enjoy a warm relationship with Benjamin Franklin, the American peace commissioners John Jay and John Adams distrusted Vergennes' motives and began separate peace talks with British envoys.
When Vergennes discovered in November 1782 that the Americans had concluded a separate peace with the British, he felt betrayed, as they had previously agreed that a joint peace would be negotiated between them.[32] In light of the generous terms that Britain had granted to the United States, although they refused to cede Canada, Vergennes remarked, "The English buy peace rather than make it."[33]
During the negotiations leading up to the Treaty of Paris, Vergennes tried to balance the conflicting interests of France, Spain and the United States. He was largely unsympathetic to the Dutch, believing that their disappointing effort in the war did not justify his championing their goals at the peace table.[34] He played a major role in persuading Spain to accept a peace agreement that did not give them Gibraltar; without their concession, it was likely the war would have been prolonged at least one more year, which French national finances could not afford.[35]
France's own peace terms with Britain were completed in January 1783. Worried that another year of war would result in further British victories, Vergennes was keen to reach an agreement. France received Tobago, several trading posts in Africa, and the end of trading restrictions at Dunkirk. Vergennes claimed that France's limited gains justified his position that their participation had been disinterested. He was criticised for this by Marquis de Castries, who believed that most of the war's burdens had been on France, while most of the benefits went to her allies.[36]
Last years
Foreign policy
Despite its claim of victory from the American War of Independence, France's foreign situation began to decline rapidly in the years after 1783. French resources were increasingly strained and unable to support the nation's traditional role in Europe. During the
Vergennes encouraged King Louis to sponsor expeditions to
Domestic politics
In domestic affairs, Vergennes remained
Vergennes died just before the meeting of the Assembly of Notables, which he is said to have suggested to Louis XVI. The opening of the Assembly was delayed several times to accommodate him after he had grown ill from overwork, but on 13 February 1787, he died. When Louis XVI was told the news, he broke down in tears, describing Vergennes as "the only friend I could count on, the one minister who never deceived me."[39]
After his death in 1787, the French national situation deteriorated, leading to the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. In January 1793, the rebels executed the King. France was soon at war with many of its neighbours. In The Terror that followed, the government imprisoned and killed many of Vergennes' contemporaries.
Legacy and popular culture
American historians have often portrayed Vergennes as a visionary, because of his support for United States independence. Other historians believe that his support for a republican insurrection and the enormous cost which France incurred in the war, caused the French Revolution, which brought down the French monarchy and the system he served.[40]
The city of Vergennes, Vermont in the United States was named after him, as promulgated by Ethan Allen[41] and suggested by Crèvecoeur.[42]
In 1784, Vergennes was elected an international member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.[43]
The figure of Vergennes was played by Guillaume Gallienne in the film Marie Antoinette (2006).
He was portrayed by
The Gravier family is a family of the surviving French nobility.
See also
- Franco-Ottoman alliance
- Saratoga Campaignwhich influenced Vergennes
- Swedish Revolution of 1772
- France in the American War of Independence
Notes
- ^ Murphy Charles Gravier, Comte De Vergennes: French Diplomacy in the Age of Revolution, 1719-1787 p. ix. All following uses of "Murphy" are to this book unless specified.
- ^ Murphy pp. 5-6
- ^ Murphy p. 7
- ^ Murphy p. 3
- ^ Murphy pp. 7-10
- ^ Murphy pp. 10-11
- ^ Murphy pp. 13-14
- ^ Murphy pp. 16-17
- ^ Murphy pp. 17-28
- ^ Murphy pp. 29-45
- ^ Murphy pp. 45-49
- ^ Murphy p. 49
- ^ Murphy p. 48
- ^ Murphy pp. 55-56
- ^ Murphy pp. 53-61
- ^ Murphy pp. 104-105
- ^ Murphy pp. 106-120
- ^ Murphy pp. 124-139
- ^ Murphy pp. 136-150
- ^ a b "Portrait of the Countess of Vergennes in Turkish Attireontes of Vergennes in Turkish Gown". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
- ^ [Meanwhile in 1762 Antoine de Favray (1706-1798) followed Liotard's example and went to Constantinople itself, where he stayed nine years, painting genre scenes and official records of another generation of foreign dignitaries. Notable are two portraits: the first, painted in 1766, of Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes (1717–1787), French ambassador to Constantinople (1754–1768); and the second, painted two years later, of the ambassador's freshly acquired native-born wife, Annette Duvivier de Testa (1730–1798). The comtesse had previously been married to one of the Testa, a prominent Genoese family already settled in Pera for several centuries. Widowed at the age of 24, she had become the ambassador's mistress and bore him two children before their marriage. Vergennes went on under Louis XVI to become Foreign Minister and win fame as the central figure in promoting official and vigorous French support for the American Revolution. Favray portrayed both in Turkish dress.]
- ^ Murphy pp. 119-175
- ^ Murphy p. 211
- ^ Murphy pp. 211-12
- ^ Harvey p. 34
- ^ Chisholm 1911.
- ^ Murphy pp. 459-460
- ^ See Jeremy Black, "Could the British Have Won the American War of Independence?." Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research. (Fall 1996), Vol. 74 Issue 299, pp. 145-154. online 90-minute video lecture given at Ohio State in 2006; requires Real Player
- ^ Rodger pp. 353-354
- ^ Schiff p. 267
- ^ Schiff p. 287
- ^ Schiff p. 313
- ^ Weintraub p. 325
- ^ Murphy pp. 462-463
- ^ Murphy pp. 358-367
- ^ Murphy p. 397
- ^ Murphy, Oville T. The Diplomatic Retreat of France and Public Opinion on the Eve of the Revolution. pp. 80-96
- ^ Murphy, Orville T. The Diplomatic Retreat of France and Public Opinion on the Eve of the Revolution. pp. 1-10
- ^ Gaines p. 230
- ^ Harvey p. 362
- ^ vergennes.org "History" Archived 24 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 11 October 2011
- )
- ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
References
- public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Vergennes, Charles Gravier, Comte de". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.; endnotes:
- P. Fauchelle, La Diplomatie française et la Ligue des neutres 1780 (1776—83) (Paris, 1893).
- John Jay, The Peace Negotiations of 1782—83 as illustrated by the Confidential Papers of Shelburne and Vergennes (New York, 1888).
- L. Bonneville de Marsangy, Le Chevalier de Vergennes, son ambassade a Constantinople (Paris, 1894) and Le Chevalier de Vergennes, son ambassade en Suède (Paris, 1898).
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the - Gaines, James R. For Liberty and Glory: Washington, Lafayette and their Revolutions. Norton, 2007.
- Harvey, Robert. A Few Bloody Noses: The American Revolutionary War. Robinson, 2004.
- Murphy, Orville T. Charles Gravier, Comte De Vergennes: French Diplomacy in the Age of Revolution, 1719-1787. State University of New York Press, 1982.
- Murphy, Orville T. The Diplomatic Retreat of France and Public Opinion on the Eve of the French Revolution, 1783-1789. Catholic University of America Press, 1998.
- Rodger, N. A. M.The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649-1815. Penguin Books, 2006.
- Schiff, Stacy. A Great Improvisation, Benjamin Franklin and the Birth of America. Bloomsbury, 2006.
- Weintraub, Stanley. Iron Tears: Rebellion in America, 1775-1783. Simon & Schuster, 2005.
Other sources
- Marie de Testa, Antoine Gautier, "Deux grandes dynasties de drogmans, les Fonton et les Testa", in Drogmans et diplomates européens auprès de la Porte ottomane, éditions ISIS, Istanbul, 2003, pp. 129–147.
- A. Gautier, "Anne Duvivier, comtesse de Vergennes (1730-1798), ambassadrice de France à Constantinople", in Le Bulletin, Association des anciens élèves, Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales (INALCO), November 2005, pp. 43–60.