Counter-Reformation
This article needs additional citations for verification. (June 2020) |
Catholic Counter-Reformation |
Catholic Reformation and Revival |
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Part of a series on the |
Reformation |
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Protestantism |
The Counter-Reformation (
Initiated in part to address the challenges of the Protestant Reformations,[3] the Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort arising from the decrees of the Council of Trent. The effort produced apologetic and polemical documents, heresy trials, anti-corruption efforts, spiritual movements, the founding of new religious orders, and the flourishing of new art and musical styles. Such policies (e.g., by the Imperial Diets of the Holy Roman Empire) had long-lasting effects in European history with exiles of Protestants continuing until the 1781 Patent of Toleration, although smaller expulsions took place in the 19th century.[4]
Such
A primary emphasis of the Counter-Reformation was a mission to reach parts of the world that had been
Terminology
'Counter-Reformation’ is a translation of German: Gegenreformation.[6]: 33
Protestant historians[7] have tended to speak in terms of Catholic reform as part of the Counter-Reformation, itself a response to the Reformation.
In nineteenth-century Germany, the term became part of the German: Kulturkampf: ‘Counter-Reformation’ was used by Protestant historians as a negative and one-dimensional concept that stressed the aspect of reaction and resistance to Protestantism and neglected that of reform within Catholicism. The term was understandably shunned by Catholic historians. Even when the Protestant historian Wilhelm Maurenbrecher introduced the term ‘Catholic Reformation’ in 1880, German historiography remained confessionally divided on the subject. The term ‘Catholic Reformation’ appealed to Catholic historians because it offered them the possibility of avoiding the term ‘Counter-Reformation’, with its problematic connotation of a mere reaction to Protestantism. But it was rejected by Protestant historians – largely because they did not want the term ‘Reformation’ to be used for anything other than the Protestant Reformation.[6]: 33
Catholic historians
The term ('counter-reformation'), however, though common, is misleading: it cannot rightly be applied, logically or chronologically, to that sudden awakening as of a startled giant, that wonderful effort of rejuvenation and reorganization, which in a space of thirty years gave to the Church an altogether new appearance. … The so-called 'counter-reformation' did not begin with the Council of Trent, long after Luther; its origins and initial achievements were much anterior to the fame of Wittenberg. It was undertaken, not by way of answering the 'reformers,' but in obedience to demands and principles that are part of the unalterable tradition of the Church and proceed from her most fundamental loyalties.[9]
The Italian historian Massimo Firpo has distinguished "Catholic Reformation" from "Counter-Reformation" by their issues. In his view, the general "Catholic Reformation" was "centered on the care of souls ..., episcopal residence, the renewal of the clergy, together with the charitable and educational roles of the new religious orders", whereas the specific "Counter-Reformation" was "founded upon the defence of orthodoxy, the repression of dissent, the reassertion of ecclesiastical authority".[10]
Other relevant terms that may be encountered:
- 'Pre-Tridentine' - before, or the status quo ante of, the Council of Trent (such as "pre-Tridentine Mass")
- 'Tridentine' - initiated at, or as a result of, the Council of Trent (1545–1563) (such as "Tridentine Mass")
- 'Post-Tridentine' - sometimes synonym for Tridentine; alteratively some subsequent distinct reaction or development (such as "post-Tridentine Mass")
- Darker colour approximates most intense period of unrest, change or impact
- Green=Catholic; Red=Protestant; Blue=Other
Precursor Catholic Reformation
The 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries saw a spiritual revival in Europe, incubated
A series of
- Council of Constance (1415)
- Council of Basel (1431)-Ferrara(1438)-Florence(1449)
- Fifth Council of the Lateran (1512–1517)
The kinds of positive reforms considered were not necessarily the ones that pre-occupied the
At times, the reform talk in the councils tended to lack enough specificity to result in an effective program—except for a tendency to follow the Observantist
Issues such as
In the half-century before the reformation, the phenomenon of Bishops closing down decadent monasteries or convents had become more common, as had programs to educate parish priests.
Conservative and reforming parties still survived within the Catholic Church even as the Protestant Reformations spread.
Priests and Religious Orders
The regular orders made their first attempts at reform in the 14th century. The 'Benedictine Bull' of 1336 reformed the Benedictines and Cistercians. In 1523, the Camaldolese Hermits of Monte Corona were recognized as a separate congregation of monks.
In 1435,
To respond to the new needs of evangelism, clergy formed into
At the end of the 1400s, a reform movement inspired by St Catherine of Genoa's hospital ministry started spreading: in Rome, starting 1514, the Oratory of Divine Love attracted an aristocratic membership of priests and laymen to perform anonymous acts of charity and to discuss reform;[18] the members subsequently became the key players in the church handling the Reformation. In 1548, then-layman Philip Neri founded a Confraternity of the Most Holy Trinity of Pilgrims and Convalescents:[19] this developed into the relatively-free religious community the Oratorians, who were given their constitutions in 1564 and recognized as a religious order by the pope in 1575. They used music and singing to attract the faithful.[20]
Contemporary events
Key events of the period include: the
Councils and documents
Confutatio Augustana
The 1530 Confutatio Augustana was the Catholic response to the Lutheran Augsburg Confession.
Council of Trent
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The council upheld the basic structure of the
The council, in the
While the traditional fundamentals of the Church were reaffirmed, there were noticeable changes to answer complaints that the Counter-Reformers were, tacitly, willing to admit were legitimate. Among the conditions to be corrected by Catholic reformers was the growing divide between the clerics and the laity; many members of the clergy in the rural parishes had been poorly educated. Often, these rural priests did not know Latin and lacked opportunities for proper theological training. Addressing the education of priests had been a fundamental focus of the humanist reformers in the past.[citation needed]
Parish priests were to be better educated in matters of theology and apologetics, while Papal authorities sought to educate the faithful about the meaning, nature and value of art and liturgy, particularly in monastic churches (Protestants had criticised them as "distracting"). Handbooks became more common, describing how to be good priests and confessors.[citation needed]
Thus, the Council of Trent attempted to improve the discipline and administration of the Church. The worldly excesses of the secular
The council, by virtue of its actions, repudiated the pluralism of the secular Renaissance that had previously plagued the Church: the organization of religious institutions was tightened, discipline was improved, and the parish was emphasized. The appointment of bishops for political reasons was no longer tolerated. In the past, the large landholdings forced many bishops to be "absent bishops" who at times were property managers trained in administration. Thus, the Council of Trent combated "absenteeism", which was the practice of bishops living in Rome or on landed estates rather than in their dioceses. The Council of Trent gave bishops greater power to supervise all aspects of religious life. Zealous prelates, such as Milan's Archbishop Carlo Borromeo (1538–1584), later canonized as a saint, set an example by visiting the remotest parishes and instilling high standards.[citation needed]
Index Librorum Prohibitorum
The 1559–1967 Index Librorum Prohibitorum was a directory of prohibited books which was updated twenty times during the next four centuries as books were added or removed from the list by the Sacred Congregation of the Index. It was divided into three classes. The first class listed heretical writers, the second class listed heretical works, and the third class listed forbidden writings which were published without the name of the author. The Index was finally suspended on 29 March 1967.
Roman Catechism
The 1566 Roman Catechism provided material in Latin to help the clergy catechize in the vernacular.
Nova ordinantia ecclesiastica
The 1575 Nova ordinantia ecclesiastica was an addendum to the Liturgia Svecanæ Ecclesiæ catholicæ & orthodoxæ conformia, also called the "Red Book".
Defensio Tridentinæ fidei
The 1578 Defensio Tridentinæ fidei was the Catholic response to the Examination of the Council of Trent.
Unigenitus
The 1713 papal bull Unigenitus condemned 101 propositions of the French Jansenist theologian Pasquier Quesnel (1634–1719). Jansenism was a Protestant-leaning or mediating movement within Catholicism, in France and the Spanish Netherlands, that was criticized for being crypto-Calvinist, denying that Christ died for all, promoting that Holy Communion should be received very infrequently, and more. After Jansenist propositions were condemned it led to the development of the Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands.
Politics and wars
British Isles
The Netherlands
When the
Farnese led a successful campaign 1578–1592 against the
The seven northern provinces as well as the
opened their gates.Farnese finally laid siege to the great seaport of
In a war composed mostly of sieges rather than battles, he proved his mettle. His strategy was to offer generous terms for surrender: there would be no massacres or looting; historic urban privileges were retained; there was a full pardon and amnesty; return to the Catholic Church would be gradual.[25]
Meanwhile, Catholic refugees from the north regrouped in Cologne and Douai and developed a more militant, Tridentine identity. They became the mobilizing forces of a popular Counter-Reformation in the south, thereby facilitating the eventual emergence of the state of Belgium.[26]
Germany
The Augsburg Interim was a period where Counter-Reformation measures were exacted upon defeated Protestant populations following the Schmalkaldic War.
During the centuries of Counter-Reformation, new towns, collectively termed Exulantenstädte (plural), were founded especially as homes for refugees fleeing the Counter-Reformation. Supporters of the Unity of the Brethren settled in parts of Silesia and Poland. Protestants from the County of Flanders often fled to the Lower Rhine region and northern Germany. French Huguenots crossed the Rhineland to Central Germany. Most towns were named either after the ruler who established them or as expressions of gratitude, e.g. Freudenstadt ("Joy Town"), Glückstadt ("Happy Town").[27]
A list of Exulantenstädte:
Cologne
The Cologne War (1583–1589) was a conflict between
Belgium
Bohemia and Austria
In the Habsburg hereditary lands, which had become predominantly Protestant except for
Others moved to Saxony or the
France
In France, from 1562 Catholics and Huguenots (Reformed Protestants) fought a series of wars, resulting in millions of deaths until the Edict of Nantes brought religious peace in 1598. It affirmed Catholicism as the state religion but granted considerable toleration to Protestants, as well as political and military privileges. The latter would be lost at the Peace of Alès of 1629, but the religious toleration lasted until the reign of Louis XIV, who resumed persecution of Protestants and finally abolished their right to worship with the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685.
In 1565, several hundred Huguenot shipwreck survivors surrendered to the Spanish authorities in Florida, presuming they would be treated fairly. The small number of Catholics among the shipwrecked were spared but the rest were all executed for heresy, with active clerical participation.[29]
Italy
Poland and Lithuania
Spain
Indian
Eastern Rites
Middle East
Ukraine
The effects of the Council of Trent and the Counter-Reformation also paved the way for
Outcomes
Areas affected
The Counter-Reformation succeeded in drastically diminishing
Religious orders
New religious orders were a fundamental part of the reforms. Orders such as the
The Theatines undertook checking the spread of heresy and contributed to a regeneration of the clergy. The Capuchins, an offshoot of the
The Ursulines focused on the special task of
The Jesuits were the most effective of the new Catholic orders. An heir to the
Jesuits participated in the expansion of the Church in the Americas and Asia, by their missionary activity. Loyola's biography contributed to an emphasis on popular piety that had waned under political popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X. After recovering from a serious wound, he took a vow to "serve only God and the Roman pontiff, His vicar on Earth." The emphasis on the Pope is a reaffirmation of the medieval papalism, while the Council of Trent defeated conciliarism, the belief that general councils of the Church collectively were God's representative on Earth rather than the Pope. Taking the Pope as an absolute leader, the Jesuits contributed to the Counter-Reformation Church along a line harmonized with Rome.
Devotion and mysticism
The Battle of Lepanto | |
---|---|
Oil on canvas | |
Dimensions | 169 cm × 137 cm (67 in × 54 in) |
Location | Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice, Italy |
The Catholic Reformation was not only a political and Church policy oriented movement, but it also included major figures such as
The spirituality of Filippo Neri, who lived in Rome at the same time as Ignatius, was practically oriented, too, but totally opposed to the
The Virgin Mary played an increasingly central role in Catholic devotions. The victory at the
The
Baroque art
The Catholic Church was a leading arts patron across much of Europe. The goal of much art in the Counter-Reformation, especially in the Rome of Bernini and the Flanders of Peter Paul Rubens, was to restore Catholicism's predominance and centrality. This was one of the drivers of the Baroque style that emerged across Europe in the late sixteenth century. In areas where Catholicism predominated, architecture[38] and painting,[39] and to a lesser extent music, reflected Counter-Reformation goals.[40]
The Council of Trent proclaimed that architecture, painting and sculpture had a role in conveying Catholic theology. Any work that might arouse "carnal desire" was inadmissible in churches, while any depiction of Christ's suffering and explicit agony was desirable and proper. In an era when some Protestant reformers were destroying images of saints and whitewashing walls, Catholic reformers reaffirmed the importance of art, with special encouragement given to images of the Virgin Mary.[41]
Decrees on art
The Last Judgment | |
---|---|
Artist | Michelangelo |
Year | 1537–1541 |
Type | Fresco |
Dimensions | 1370 cm × 1200 cm (539.3 in × 472.4 in) |
Location | Sistine Chapel, Vatican City |
The decree confirmed the traditional doctrine that images only represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person, not the image, and further instructed that:
... every superstition shall be removed ... all lasciviousness be avoided; in such wise that figures shall not be painted or adorned with a beauty exciting to lust ... there be nothing seen that is disorderly, or that is unbecomingly or confusedly arranged, nothing that is profane, nothing indecorous, seeing that holiness becometh the house of God. And that these things may be the more faithfully observed, the holy Synod ordains, that no one be allowed to place, or cause to be placed, any unusual image, in any place, or church, howsoever exempted, except that image have been approved of by the bishop ...[42]
Ten years after the decree
The number of such decorative treatments of religious subjects declined sharply, as did "unbecomingly or confusedly arranged" Mannerist pieces, as a number of books, notably by the Flemish theologian
According to the great medievalist
Church music
Reforms before the Council of Trent
Probably the most extreme move at reform came late in 1562 when, instructed by the legates, Egidio Foscarari (bishop of Modena) and Gabriele Paleotti (archbishop of Bologna) began work on reforming religious orders and their practices involving the liturgy.[49] The reforms prescribed to the cloisters of nuns, which included omitting the use of an organ,[clarification needed] prohibiting professional musicians, and banishing polyphonic singing, were much more strict than any of the council's edicts or even those to be found in the Palestrina legend.[50]
Fueling the cry for reform from many ecclesial figures was the compositional technique popular in the 15th and 16th centuries of using musical material and even the accompanying texts from other compositions such as
Reforms during the 22nd session
The Council of Trent met sporadically from December 13, 1545, to December 4, 1563, to reform many parts of the Catholic Church. The 22nd session of the council, which met in 1562, dealt with Church music in Canon 8 in the section of "Abuses in the Sacrifice of the Mass" during a meeting of the council on September 10, 1562.[47]: 576
Canon 8 states that "Since the sacred mysteries should be celebrated with utmost reverence, with both deepest feeling toward God alone, and with external worship that is truly suitable and becoming, so that others may be filled with devotion and called to religion: ... Everything should be regulated so that the Masses, whether they be celebrated with the plain voice or in song, with everything clearly and quickly executed, may reach the ears of the hearers and quietly penetrate their hearts. In those Masses where measured music and organ are customary, nothing profane should be intermingled, but only hymns and divine praises. If something from the divine service is sung with the organ while the service proceeds, let if first be recited in a simple, clear voice, lest the reading of the sacred words be imperceptible. But the entire manner of singing in musical modes should be calculated not to afford vain delight to the ear, but so that the words may be comprehensible to all; and thus may the hearts of the listeners be caught up into the desire for celestial harmonies and contemplation of the joys of the blessed."[51]
Canon 8 is often quoted as the Council of Trent's decree on Church music, but that is a glaring misunderstanding of the canon; it was only a proposed decree. In fact, the delegates at the council never officially accepted canon 8 in its popular form but bishops of Granada, Coimbra, and Segovia pushed for the long statement about music to be attenuated and many other prelates of the council joined enthusiastically.[52] The only restrictions actually given by the 22nd session was to keep secular elements out of the music, making polyphony implicitly allowed.[53] The issue of textual intelligibility did not make its way into the final edicts of the 22nd session but were only featured in preliminary debates.[54] The 22nd session only prohibited "lascivious" and "profane" things to be intermingled with the music but Paleotti, in his Acts, brings to equal importance the issues of intelligibility.[55]
The idea that the council called to remove all polyphony from the Church is widespread, but there is no documentary evidence to support that claim. It is possible, however, that some of the Fathers had proposed such a measure.[56] The emperor Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor has been attributed to be the "saviour of Church music" because he said polyphony ought not to be driven out of the Church. But Ferdinand was most likely an alarmist and read into the council the possibility of a total ban on polyphony.[57] The Council of Trent did not focus on the style of music but on attitudes of worship and reverence during the Mass.[47]: 576
Saviour-Legend
The crises regarding
The Pope Marcellus Mass, in short, was not important in its own day and did not help save Church polyphony.[60] What is undeniable is that despite any solid evidence of his influence during or after the Council of Trent, no figure is more qualified to represent the cause of polyphony in the Mass than Palestrina.[61] Pope Pius IV upon hearing Palestrina's music would make Palestrina, by Papal Brief, the model for future generations of Catholic composers of sacred music.[59]
Reforms following the Council of Trent
Like his contemporary Palestrina, the Flemish composer
Despite the dearth of edicts from the council regarding polyphony and textual clarity, the reforms that followed from the 22nd session filled in the gaps left by the council in stylistic areas. In the 24th session the council gave authority to "Provincial Synods" to discern provisions for Church music.[47]: 576–577 The decision to leave practical application and stylistic matters to local ecclesiastical leaders was important in shaping the future of Catholic church music.[65] It was left then up to the local Church leaders and Church musicians to find proper application for the council's decrees.[66]
Though originally theological and directed towards the attitudes of the musicians, the Council's decrees came to be thought of by Church musicians as a pronouncement on proper musical styles.[47]: 592–593 This understanding was most likely spread through musicians who sought to implement the council's declarations but did not read the official Tridentine pronouncements. Church musicians were probably influenced by order from their ecclesiastical patrons.[67] Composers who reference the council's reforms in prefaces to their compositions do not adequately claim a musical basis from the council but a spiritual and religious basis of their art.[47]: 576–594
The Cardinal Archbishop of Milan,
Ruffo took Borromeo's commission seriously and set out to compose in a style that presented the text so that all words would be intelligible and the textual meaning be the most important part of the composition. His approach was to move all the voices in a
The Council of Trent brought about other changes in music: most notably developing the
Another reform following the Council of Trent was the publication of the 1568 Roman Breviary.
Calendrical studies
More celebrations of holidays and similar events raised a need to have these events followed closely throughout the dioceses. But there was a problem with the accuracy of the
An actual new calendar had to wait until the Gregorian calendar in 1582. At the time of its publication, De revolutionibus passed with relatively little comment: little more than a mathematical convenience that simplified astronomical references for a more accurate calendar.[70] Physical evidence suggesting Copernicus's theory regarding the earth's motion was literally true promoted the apparent heresy against the religious thought of the time. As a result, during the Galileo affair, Galileo Galilei was placed under house arrest, served in Rome, Siena, Arcetri, and Florence, for publishing writings said to be "vehemently suspected of being heretical." His opponents condemned heliocentric theory and temporarily banned its teaching in 1633.[71] Similarly, the Academia Secretorum Naturae in Naples had been shut down in 1578. As a result of clerical opposition, heliocentricists emigrated from Catholic to Protestant areas, some forming the Melanchthon Circle.
Major figures
- Teresa of Ávila (1515–1582)
- Robert Bellarmine
- Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558)
- Charles Borromeo
- Peter Canisius (1521–1597)
- Erasmus
- John Eck
- John Fisher
- John of the Cross
- Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (1578–1637)
- Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1640–1705)
- Louis XIV (1638–1715)
- Ignatius of Loyola
- Mary I of England (1553–1558)
- Catherine de' Medici
- Thomas More
- Péter Pázmány (1570–1637)
- Philip II of Spain (1527–1598)
- Philip Neri (1515–1595)
- Pope Leo X (1513–1521)
- Pope Pius III (1503)
- Pope Paul III (1534–1549)
- Pope Julius III (1550–1555)
- Pope Paul IV (1555–1559)
- Pope Pius IV (1559–1565)
- Pope Pius V (1566–1572)
- Pope Gregory XIII (1572–1585)
- Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590)
- Matteo Ricci (1552–1610)
- Cardinal Richelieu (1585–1642)
- Francis de Sales
- Sigismund the Old of Poland(1467–1548)
- Sigismund III of Poland(1566–1632)
- Francis Xavier (1506–1552)
- Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640)
- William V, Duke of Bavaria (1548–1626)
- Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria (1573–1651)
- Vincent de Paul
See also
- Anti-Papalism
- Anti-Protestantism
- Catholic-Protestant relations
- Corpus Catholicorum (series)
- Counter-Reformation in Poland
- Crusades
- European wars of religion
- History of the Catholic Church
- League for Catholic Counter-Reformation
- Second scholasticism
- Spanish Inquisition
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A religious order founded by St. Angela de Merici for the sole purpose of educating young girls
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- ^ Burke 1985, p. 149.
Notes
- protocanonicalOld Testament and the New, but not interspersed among the other Old Testament books as in Catholic Bibles.
Bibliography
- Beales, Derek (2005). Enlightenment and Reform in Eighteenth-Century Europe. London: I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-950-5.
- Firpo, Massimo (May 2016). "Rethinking "Catholic Reform" and "Counter-Reformation": What Happened in Early Modern Catholicism—a View from Italy". ISSN 1385-3783.
- Leichtentritt, Hugo (1944). "The Reform of Trent and Its Effect on Music". The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 3. in JSTOR Archived 2016-01-31 at the Wayback Machine.
- Lockwood, Lewis H. (1957). "Vincenzo Ruffo and Musical Reform after the Council of Trent". The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 43, No. 3, in JSTOR Archived 2016-01-31 at the Wayback Machine.
- Manzetti, Leo P. (1928). "Palestrina". The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 3, in JSTOR Archived 2016-06-11 at the Wayback Machine.
- Monson, Craig A. (2002). "The Council of Trent Revisited." Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 55, No. 1, in JSTOR
Further reading
General works
- Bauer, Stefan. The Invention of Papal History: Onofrio Panvinio between Renaissance and Catholic Reform (2020).
- Bireley, Robert. The Refashioning of Catholicism, 1450–1700: A Reassessment of the Counter Reformation (1999) excerpt and text search
- Walsh, M., ed. (1991). Butler's Lives of the Saints. New York: HarperSanFrancisco.
- Dickens, A. G. The Counter Reformation (1979) expresses the older view that it was a movement of reactionary conservatism.
- Harline, Craig. "Official Religion: Popular Religion in Recent Historiography of the Catholic Reformation", Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte (1990), Vol. 81, pp 239–262.
- Jones, Martin D. W. The Counter Reformation: Religion and Society in Early Modern Europe (1995), emphasis on historiography
- Jones, Pamela M. and Thomas Worcester, eds. From Rome to Eternity: Catholicism and the Arts in Italy, ca. 1550–1650 (Brill 2002)
- Lehner, Ulrich L. The Catholic Enlightenment (2016)
- Mourret, Fernand. History of the Catholic Church (vol 5 1931) online free; pp. 517–649; by French Catholic scholar
- Mullett, Michael A. The Catholic Reformation (Routledge 1999)
- O'Connell, Marvin. Counter-reformation, 1550–1610 (1974)
- Ó hAnnracháin, Tadhg. Catholic Europe, 1592–1648: Centre and Peripheries (2015). .
- Ogg, David. Europe in the Seventeenth Century (6th ed., 1965). pp 82–117.
- Olin, John C. The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola: Reform in the Church, 1495–1540 (Fordham University Press, 1992)
- O'Malley, John W. Trent and All That: Renaming Catholicism in the Early Modern Era (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000).
- Pollen, John Hungerford. The Counter-Reformation (2011) excerpt and text search
- Soergel, Philip M. Wondrous in His Saints: Counter Reformation Propaganda in Bavaria. Berkeley CA: University of California Press, 1993.
- Thaler, Peter. Protestant Resistance in Counterreformation Austria. New York: Routledge, 2020.
- Unger, Rudolph M. Counter-Reformation (2006).
- Wright, A. D. The Counter-reformation: Catholic Europe and the Non-christian World (2nd ed. 2005), advanced.
Primary sources
- Luebke, David, ed. The Counter-Reformation: The Essential Readings (1999) excerpt and text search
Historiography
- Bradshaw, Brendan. "The Reformation and the Counter-Reformation", History Today (1983) 33#11 pp. 42–45.
- Marnef, Guido. "Belgian and Dutch Post-war Historiography on the Protestant and Catholic Reformation in the Netherlands", Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte (2009) Vol. 100, pp. 271–292.
- Menchi, Silvana Seidel. "The Age of Reformation and Counter-Reformation in Italian Historiography, 1939–2009", Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte (2009) Vol. 100, pp. 193–217.