Cranberry
Cranberries | |
---|---|
Cranberry bush with fruit partially submerged | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Asterids |
Order: | Ericales |
Family: | Ericaceae |
Genus: | Vaccinium |
Subgenus: | Vaccinium subg. Oxycoccus (Hill) A.Gray |
Species | |
Vaccinium erythrocarpum |
Cranberries are a group of
Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs or vines up to 2 meters (7 ft) long and 5 to 20 centimeters (2 to 8 in) in height;[5] they have slender, wiry stems that are not thickly woody and have small evergreen leaves. The flowers are dark pink, with very distinct reflexed petals, leaving the style and stamens fully exposed and pointing forward. They are pollinated by bees. The fruit is a berry that is larger than the leaves of the plant; it is initially light green, turning red when ripe.[6] It is edible, but with an acidic taste that usually overwhelms its sweetness.
In 2020, the United States, Canada, and Chile accounted for 97% of the world production of cranberries. Most cranberries are processed into products such as juice, sauce, jam, and sweetened dried cranberries, with the remainder sold fresh to consumers. Cranberry sauce is a traditional accompaniment to turkey at Christmas and Thanksgiving dinners in the United States and Canada, and at Christmas dinner in the United Kingdom.[7]
Species and description
Cranberries are related to bilberries, blueberries, and huckleberries, all in Vaccinium subgenus Vaccinium. These differ in having bell-shaped flowers, petals that are not reflexed, and woodier stems, forming taller shrubs. There are 4–5 species of cranberry, classified by subgenus:[8]
Subgenus Oxycoccus
Image | Name | Description | Distribution |
---|---|---|---|
Vaccinium oxycoccos or Oxycoccus palustris (common cranberry, northern cranberry or cranberry) | It has small 5–10 mm (1⁄4–3⁄8 in) leaves, with an inrolled margin. The flowers are dark pink, with a purple central spike, produced on finely hairy stalks. The fruit is a small pale pink to red berry, with a refreshing sharp acidic flavor. | Widespread throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere, including northern Europe, northern Asia, and northern North America. | |
Vaccinium microcarpum or Oxycoccus microcarpus (small cranberry) | It is highly similar to V. oxycoccos, differing in the leaves being more triangular, and the flower stems hairless; additionally, their stems can also be smaller and produce a smaller number of flowers than V. ocycoccos. They also differ in the fact that their leaves can be smaller in size, even though the main difference is their triangular shape.[9] Some botanists include it within V. oxycoccos. | Occurs in northern North America,[10] northern Europe and northern Asia. | |
Vaccinium macrocarpon or Oxycoccus macrocarpus (large cranberry, American cranberry, bearberry) | It differs from V. oxycoccos in the leaves being larger, 10–20 mm (3⁄8–3⁄4 in) long, and flat, and in the slightly apple-like taste of the berries. | Native to northern North America across Canada, and eastern United States, south to North Carolina at high altitudes). |
Subgenus Oxycoccus, sect. Oxycoccoides
Image | Name | Description | Distribution |
---|---|---|---|
Vaccinium erythrocarpum or Oxycarpus erythrocarpus (southern mountain cranberry, bearberry) | This species differs significantly from sect. oxycoccus cranberries particularly in growth habit. A deciduous shrub, their flowers are borne in June of a tubular shape with reflexed petals consistent with the rest of the subgenera. They produce edible scarlet berries described as being seemingly translucent. | Native to southeastern United States at high altitudes in the southern Appalachian Mountains | |
Vaccinium japonicum | They are typically found in forests and thickets within alpine areas between 1000 and 2600 metres. | Native to Southern China, Taiwan, the Japanese archipelago, and the Korean Peninsula |
Etymology
The name cranberry derives from the
History
In North America, the
Sauce for the Pilgrims, cranberry or bearberry, is a small trayling [sic] plant that grows in salt marshes that are overgrown with moss. The berries are of a pale yellow color, afterwards red, as big as a cherry, some perfectly round, others oval, all of them hollow with sower [sic] astringent taste; they are ripe in August and September. They are excellent against the Scurvy. They are also good to allay the fervor of hoof diseases. The Indians and English use them mush, boyling [sic] them with sugar for sauce to eat with their meat; and it is a delicate sauce, especially with roasted mutton. Some make tarts with them as with gooseberries.
The Compleat Cook's Guide, published in 1683, made reference to cranberry juice. In 1703, cranberries were served at the Harvard University commencement dinner. In 1787, James Madison wrote Thomas Jefferson in France for background information on constitutional government to use at the Constitutional Convention. Jefferson sent back a number of books on the subject and in return asked for a gift of apples, pecans and cranberries. William Aiton, a Scottish botanist, included an entry for the cranberry in volume II of his 1789 work Hortus Kewensis. He notes that Vaccinium macrocarpon (American cranberry) was cultivated by James Gordon in 1760. In 1796, cranberries were served at the first celebration of the landing of the Pilgrims, and Amelia Simmons (an American orphan) wrote a book entitled American Cookery which contained a recipe for cranberry tarts.
By 1900, 8,700 hectares (21,500 acres) were under cultivation in the New England region.[13] In 2021, the total output of cranberries harvested in the United States was 360,000 metric tons (790 million pounds), with Wisconsin as the largest state producer (59% of total), followed by Massachusetts and Oregon.[15]
Cultivation
This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2021) |
Geography and bog method
Historically, cranberry beds were constructed in wetlands. Today's cranberry beds are constructed in upland areas with a shallow water table. The topsoil is scraped off to form
A common misconception about cranberry production is that the beds remain flooded throughout the year. During the growing season cranberry beds are not flooded, but are irrigated regularly to maintain soil moisture. Beds are flooded in the autumn to facilitate harvest and again during the winter to protect against low temperatures.[16] In cold climates like Wisconsin, New England, and eastern Canada, the winter flood typically freezes into ice, while in warmer climates the water remains liquid. When ice forms on the beds, trucks can be driven onto the ice to spread a thin layer of sand to control pests and rejuvenate the vines. Sanding is done every three to five years.
Propagation
Cranberry vines are propagated by moving vines from an established bed. The vines are spread on the surface of the sand of the new bed and pushed into the sand with a blunt disk. The vines are watered frequently during the first few weeks until roots form and new shoots grow. Beds are given frequent, light application of nitrogen fertilizer during the first year.[17] The cost of renovating cranberry beds is estimated to be between $74,000 and $124,000 per hectare ($30,000 and $50,000 per acre).[18]
Ripening and harvest
Cranberries are harvested in the fall when the fruit takes on its distinctive deep red color, and most ideally after the first frost.[19] Berries that receive sun turn a deep red when fully ripe, while those that do not fully mature are a pale pink or white color. This is usually in September through the first part of November. To harvest cranberries, the beds are flooded with 15 to 20 centimeters (6 to 8 in) of water above the vines. A harvester is driven through the beds to remove the fruit from the vines. For the past 50 years[when?], water reel type harvesters have been used. Harvested cranberries float in the water and can be corralled into a corner of the bed and conveyed or pumped from the bed. From the farm, cranberries are taken to receiving stations where they are cleaned, sorted, and stored prior to packaging or processing. While cranberries are harvested when they take on their deep red color, they can also be harvested beforehand when they are still white, which is how white cranberry juice is made.[20] Yields are lower on beds harvested early and the early flooding tends to damage vines, but not severely. Vines can also be trained through dry picking to help avoid damage in subsequent harvests.[21]
Although most cranberries are wet-picked as described above, 5–10% of the US crop is still dry-picked. This entails higher labor costs and lower yield, but dry-picked berries are less bruised and can be sold as fresh fruit instead of having to be immediately frozen or processed. Originally performed with two-handed comb scoops, dry picking is today accomplished by motorized, walk-behind harvesters which must be small enough to traverse beds without damaging the vines.
Cranberries for fresh market are stored in shallow bins or boxes with perforated or slatted bottoms, which deter decay by allowing air to circulate. Because harvest occurs in late autumn, cranberries for fresh market are frequently stored in thick walled barns without mechanical refrigeration. Temperatures are regulated by opening and closing vents in the barn as needed. Cranberries destined for processing are usually frozen in bulk containers shortly after arriving at a receiving station.
Diseases
Diseases of cranberry include:
- Cranberry fruit rot
- Cranberry root rot
- Cranberry falseblossom disease, caused by a phytoplasma that is vectored by the blunt nosed leafhopper (Limotettix vaccinii)
Production
Top Cranberry producers | |
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in 2020 | |
Numbers in million FAOSTAT[22] |
In 2020, world production of cranberry was 663,345 tonnes, mainly by the United States, Canada, and Chile, which collectively accounted for 97% of the global total (table).[22] Wisconsin (59% of US production) and Quebec (60% of Canadian production) were the two largest regional producers of cranberries in North America.[15][23] Cranberries are also a major commercial crop in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Oregon, and Washington,[15][24] as well as in the Canadian province of British Columbia (33% of Canadian production).[23]
Food uses
Products
As fresh cranberries are hard, sour, and bitter, about 95% of cranberries are processed and used to make cranberry juice and sauce. They are also sold dried and sweetened.[25][26] Cranberry juice is usually sweetened or blended with other fruit juices to reduce its natural tartness. At four teaspoons of sugar per 100 grams (one teaspoon per ounce), cranberry juice cocktail is more highly sweetened than even soda drinks that have been linked to obesity.[27]
Usually cranberries as fruit are cooked into a
Fresh cranberries can be frozen at home, and will keep up to nine months; they can be used directly in recipes without thawing.[26]
There are several alcoholic cocktails, including the Cosmopolitan, that include cranberry juice.
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
Energy | 46 kcal (190 kJ) |
12 g | |
Sugars | 4.3 g |
Dietary fiber | 3.6 g |
0.1 g | |
0.5 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 1% 0.101 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 6% 0.295 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 3% 0.057 mg |
Folate (B9) | 0% 1 μg |
Vitamin C | 16% 14 mg |
Vitamin E | 9% 1.3 mg |
Vitamin K | 4% 5 μg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 1% 8 mg |
Iron | 1% 0.2 mg |
Magnesium | 1% 6 mg |
Manganese | 16% 0.36 mg |
Phosphorus | 1% 11 mg |
Potassium | 3% 80 mg |
Sodium | 0% 2 mg |
Zinc | 1% 0.1 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 87 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[28] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[29] |
Raw cranberries are 87% water, 12%
Dried cranberries are commonly processed with up to 10 times their natural sugar content.[30] The drying process also eliminates vitamin C content.[30]
Medical use
Urinary tract infections
Cranberries have been used for decades to prevent urinary tract infections (UTIs).[31] A 2023 Cochrane systematic review of 50 studies concluded there is evidence that consuming cranberry products is effective for reducing the risk of UTIs in women with recurrent UTIs, in children, and in people susceptible to UTIs following clinical interventions; while there was little evidence of effect in elderly people, those with urination disorders, or pregnant women.[31]
Research
Phytochemicals
Raw cranberries, cranberry juice and cranberry extracts are a source of
Cranberry juice contains a high
Extract quality
Problems may arise with the lack of validation for quantifying of
Possible safety concerns
The
Marketing and economics
United States
Cranberry sales in the United States have traditionally been associated with holidays of Thanksgiving and Christmas.
In the U.S., large-scale cranberry cultivation has been developed as opposed to other countries. American cranberry growers have a long history of cooperative marketing. As early as 1904, John Gaynor, a Wisconsin grower, and A.U. Chaney, a fruit broker from Des Moines, Iowa, organized Wisconsin growers into a cooperative called the Wisconsin Cranberry Sales Company to receive a uniform price from buyers. Growers in New Jersey and Massachusetts were also organized into cooperatives, creating the National Fruit Exchange that marketed fruit under the Eatmor brand. The success of cooperative marketing almost led to its failure. With consistent and high prices, area and production doubled between 1903 and 1917 and prices fell.
With surplus cranberries and changing American households some enterprising growers began canning cranberries that were below-grade for fresh market. Competition between canners was fierce because profits were thin. The Ocean Spray cooperative was established in 1930 through a merger of three primary processing companies: Ocean Spray Preserving company, Makepeace Preserving Co, and Cranberry Products Co. The new company was called Cranberry Canners, Inc. and used the Ocean Spray label on their products. Since the new company represented over 90% of the market, it would have been illegal under American antitrust laws had attorney John Quarles not found an exemption for agricultural cooperatives. As of 2006[update], about 65% of the North American industry belongs to the Ocean Spray cooperative.[45]
In 1958, Morris April Brothers—who produced Eatmor brand cranberry sauce in Tuckahoe, New Jersey—brought an action against Ocean Spray for violation of the
Prices and production increased steadily during the 1980s and 1990s. Prices peaked at about $65.00 per barrel ($0.65 per pound or $1.43 per kilogram)—a cranberry barrel equals 100 pounds or 45.4 kilograms—in 1996 then fell to $18.00 per barrel ($0.18 per pound or $0.40 per kilogram) in 2001. The cause for the precipitous drop was classic oversupply. Production had outpaced consumption leading to substantial inventory in freezers or as concentrate.[citation needed]
Cranberry handlers (processors) include Ocean Spray, Cliffstar Corporation, Northland Cranberries Inc. (Sun Northland LLC), Clement Pappas & Co., and Decas Cranberry Products as well as a number of small handlers and processors.[46]
Cranberry Marketing Committee
The Cranberry Marketing Committee is an organization that was established in 1962 as a Federal Marketing Order to ensure a stable, orderly supply of good quality product.[47] The order has been renewed and modified slightly over the years. The market order has been invoked during six crop years: 1962 (12%), 1963 (5%), 1970 (10%), 1971 (12%), 2000 (15%), and 2001 (35%). Even though supply still exceeds demand, there is little will to invoke the Federal Marketing Order out of the realization that any pullback in supply by U.S. growers would easily be filled by Canadian production.
The Cranberry Marketing Committee, based in Wareham, Massachusetts, represents more than 1,100 cranberry growers and 60 cranberry handlers across Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, Washington and New York (Long Island). The authority for the actions taken by the Cranberry Marketing Committee is provided in Chapter IX, Title 7, Code of Federal Regulations which is called the Federal Cranberry Marketing Order. The Order is part of the Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937, identifying cranberries as a commodity good that can be regulated by Congress. The Federal Cranberry Marketing Order has been altered over the years to expand the Cranberry Marketing Committee's ability to develop projects in the United States and around the world. The Cranberry Marketing Committee currently runs promotional programs in the United States, China, India, Mexico, Pan-Europe, and South Korea.
International trade
As of 2016[update], the European Union was the largest importer of American cranberries, followed individually by Canada, China, Mexico, and South Korea.[48] From 2013 to 2017, U.S. cranberry exports to China grew exponentially, making China the second largest country importer, reaching $36 million in cranberry products.[49] The China–United States trade war resulted in many Chinese businesses cutting off ties with their U.S. cranberry suppliers.[50]
References
Notes
- ISBN 978-0-521-70772-5
- ^ USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Vaccinium macrocarpon". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 11 November 2014.
- ^ "How Cranberries Grow: "Cranberries 101" – An Introduction". Cape Cod Cranberry Growers' Association. 2014. Retrieved 11 November 2014.
- ^ Steven Clemants. "Vaccinium oxycoccos: Small Cranberry, Technical Page". Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Archived from the original on 23 August 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ "About Cranberries". Cranberry Institute. Archived from the original on 9 January 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2009.
- ^ Keith, Gabriel. "Cranberries: A colorful and nutritious fruit". South Dakota State University Extension. Retrieved 20 October 2023.
- ^ Carol Cloud Bailey (19 November 2009). "Garden Tips: Give thanks for cranberries, grown with a taste of Florida". TCPalm.com. Scripps Interactive Newspapers Group. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
- ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica: Cranberry". 23 October 2023.
- JSTOR 2960511.
- ^ Faculty of Natural Resources Management. "Oxycoccus microcarpus Small Cranberry". borealforest.org. Lakehead University.
- ^ "American Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) : FAQ". Research Guides, University of Wisconsin Libraries, Madison, WI. 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
- ^ a b "Cranberry". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
- ^ doi:10.1094/APSnetFeature-2000-1100. Archived from the originalon 8 December 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
- ISSN 0018-5345.
- ^ a b c "Cranberry production in top-producing States to increase modestly in 2021". Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture. 24 November 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
- ^ "The Cranberry". Center for Agriculture, Food and the Environment. 7 August 2015. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
- ^ Carolyn J. DeMoranville; Hilary A. Sandler & Frank L. Caruso (June 2001). "Planting New Cranberry Beds: Recommendations and management" (PDF). University of Massachusetts, Cranberry Experiment Station. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 May 2010. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
- ^ "Alternative 4 – Bog Renovation for Cranberry Growing" (PDF). Town of Carlisle, Massachusetts. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2018. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
- OCLC 799792.
- ^ "Wet Picking". Stone Bridge Farm. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
- ^ "Fresh Fruit Production BMP: Publications UMass Cranberry Station". www.umass.edu. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
- ^ a b "Cranberry production in 2020, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2022. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
- ^ a b Ronda Payne (2 July 2019). "Crazy for cranberries in Canada". Fruit & Vegetable, Annex Business Media. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
- ^ "Cranberry cultivation". US Cranberries. 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
- ^ a b c Zeldes, Leah A. (25 November 2009). "Eat this! Cranberries more than a thanksgiving condiment". Dining Chicago. Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc. Archived from the original on 1 February 2010. Retrieved 25 November 2009.
- ^ a b "The American Cranberry-Basic Information on Cranberries". Library.wisc.edu. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
- ^ Calvan, Bobby Caina. "Cranberry industry seeks to avoid school ban - The Boston Globe". BostonGlobe.com. Retrieved 23 November 2023.
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- )
- ^ a b "Cranberries, dried (survey)". FoodData Central, US Department of Agriculture. 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
- ^ PMID 37947276.
- .
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- ^ PMID 24228191.
- ^ a b c d e "Cranberry". New York: Gerstner Sloan Kettering Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. 2016.
- ^ Miranda Hill (23 November 2005). "Blocking tooth decay". Webmd.com. Retrieved 13 November 2009.
- S2CID 22205175.
- S2CID 39898498.
- PMID 12373623.
- .
- PMID 20549799.
- PMID 22439747.
- PMID 17322161.
- ^ The Cranberry Industry and Ocean Spray Cooperative: Lessons in Cooperative Governance (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-471-18907-7. Archived(PDF) from the original on 14 June 2007.
- ^ "About CMC » Cranberry Marketing Committee". Cranberry Marketing Committee. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ^ "Cranberries: No Longer Just an American Tradition". Foreign Agricultural Service, US Department of Agriculture. 22 November 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ^ Jennifer Levitz (4 November 2017). "Beyond Thanksgiving: The Humble Cranberry Takes Root in China". New York: The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ^ Ma, Adrian (6 October 2019). "How The Trade War Crushed A Growing Chinese Market For U.S. Cranberries". NPR News. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
Further reading
- Cole, S. & Gifford, L. (2009). The Cranberry: Hard Work and Holiday Sauce. Tilbury House Publishers. ISBN 978-0-88448-316-8
- Trehane, J. (2009). Blueberries, Cranberries and Other Vacciniums. Timber Press. ISBN 978-1-60469-072-9
External links
Media related to Cranberries at Wikimedia Commons
- Germplasm Resources Information Network: Sect. Oxycoccus and Sect. Oxycoccoides
- University of Massachusetts Amherst Cranberry Station for information on cranberry research
- Cranberry Library Page Hosted by the University of Wisconsin-Madison
- Wikimapia An overhead view of a cranberry farm near Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin
- Cranberry research at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
- University of Massachusetts Cranberry Station Hosted by the University of Massachusetts – Amherst
- "Harvest-Time in a Cranberry Bog", The Booklovers Magazine, December 1904. Internet Archive.