Crete

Coordinates: 35°12.6′N 24°54.6′E / 35.2100°N 24.9100°E / 35.2100; 24.9100
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Cretan
)

Crete (Kriti)
Minoans,
Eteocretans,
Cydonians and Pelasgians
Additional information
Time zone
  • GMT +2
ISO codeGR-M
HDI (2019) 0.879[3]
very high · 3rd of 13

Crete (

Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and Corsica. Crete rests about 160 km (99 mi) south of the Greek mainland, and about 100 km (62 mi) southwest of Anatolia. Crete has an area of 8,450 km2 (3,260 sq mi) and a coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi). It bounds the southern border of the Aegean Sea, with the Sea of Crete (or North Cretan Sea) to the north and the Libyan Sea
(or South Cretan Sea) to the south. Crete covers 260 km from west to east but is narrow from north to south, spanning three longitudes but only half a latitude.

Crete and a number of islands and islets that surround it constitute the Region of Crete (Greek: Περιφέρεια Κρήτης), which is the southernmost of the 13

top-level administrative units of Greece, and the fifth most populous of Greece's regions. Its capital and largest city is Heraklion, on the north shore of the island. As of 2020, the region had a population of 636,504.[4] The Dodecanese are located to the northeast of Crete, while the Cyclades are situated to the north, separated by the Sea of Crete. The Peloponnese
is to the region's northwest.

Crete was the centre of Europe's first advanced civilization, the Minoans, from 2700 to 1420 BC. The Minoan civilization was overrun by the Mycenaean civilization from mainland Greece. Crete was later ruled by Rome, then successively by the Byzantine Empire, Andalusian Arabs, the Venetian Republic, and the Ottoman Empire. In 1898 Crete, whose people had for some time wanted to join the Greek state, achieved independence from the Ottomans, formally becoming the Cretan State. Crete became part of Greece in December 1913.

The island is mostly mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east. It includes Crete's highest point,

Minoan palace at Knossos is also located in Heraklion.[5]

Name

kA
Z1
I9U33Z7N25
Crete
Keftiu
in hieroglyphs

The earliest references to the island of Crete come from texts from the

Neo-Assyrian records and the Bible (Caphtor). It was known in ancient Egyptian as Keftiu or kftı͗w, strongly suggesting a similar Minoan name for the island.[7]

The current name Crete is first attested in the 15th century BC in Mycenaean Greek texts, written in Linear B, through the words ke-re-te (𐀐𐀩𐀳, *Krētes; later Greek: Κρῆτες [krɛː.tes], plural of Κρής [krɛːs])[8] and ke-re-si-jo (𐀐𐀩𐀯𐀍, *Krēsijos; later Greek: Κρήσιος [krέːsios],[9] 'Cretan').[10][11] In Ancient Greek, the name Crete (Κρήτη) first appears in Homer's Odyssey.[12] Its etymology is unknown. One proposal derives it from a hypothetical Luwian word *kursatta (compare kursawar 'island', kursattar 'cutting, sliver').[13] Another proposal suggests that it derives from the ancient Greek word "κραταιή" (krataie̅), meaning strong or powerful, the reasoning being that Crete was the strongest thalassocracy during ancient times.[14][15]

In

Arabic: اقريطش < (τῆς) Κρήτης), but after the Emirate of Crete's establishment of its new capital at ربض الخندق Rabḍ al-Ḫandaq (modern Heraklion; Greek: Ηράκλειο, Irákleio), both the city and the island became known as Χάνδαξ (Chandax) or Χάνδακας (Chandakas), which gave Latin, Italian, and Venetian Candia, from which were derived French Candie and English Candy or Candia. Under Ottoman rule, in Ottoman Turkish
, Crete was called Girit (كريد). In the Hebrew Bible, Crete is referred to as (כְּרֵתִים) "kretim".

Physical geography and climate

Messara Plain
The palm beach of Vai
Lefka Ori
Psiloritis

Crete is the largest island in Greece and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is located in the southern part of the Aegean Sea separating the Aegean from the Libyan Sea.

Island morphology

The island has an elongated shape: it spans 260 km (160 mi) from east to west, is 60 km (37 mi) at its widest point, and narrows to as little as 12 km (7.5 mi) (close to Ierapetra). Crete covers an area of 8,336 km2 (3,219 sq mi), with a coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi); to the north, it broaches the Sea of Crete (Greek: Κρητικό Πέλαγος); to the south, the Libyan Sea (Greek: Λιβυκό Πέλαγος); in the west, the Myrtoan Sea, and toward the east the Carpathian Sea. It lies approximately 160 km (99 mi) south of the Greek mainland.

There are a number of peninsulas and gulfs on the north side of Crete, from west to east these include: Gramvousa peninsula, gulf of Kissamos, Rodopos peninsula, gulf of Chania, Akrotiri peninsula, Souda Bay, Apokoronas cape, gulf of Almiros, gulf of Heraklion, Aforesmenos cape, gulf of Mirabello, gulf of Sitia and the Sideros peninsula. On the south side of Crete is the gulf of Messaras and Cape Lithinon.

Mountains and valleys

Crete is mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east, formed by six different groups of mountains:

These mountains lavish Crete with valleys, such as

Nidha; caves, such as Gourgouthakas, Diktaion, and Idaion (the birthplace of the ancient Greek god Zeus
); and a number of gorges.

The mountains have been seen as a key feature of the island's distinctiveness, especially since the time of Romantic travellers' writing. Contemporary Cretans distinguish between highlanders and lowlanders; the former often claim to reside in places affording a higher/better climatic and moral environment. In keeping with the legacy of Romantic authors, the mountains are seen as having determined their residents' 'resistance' to past invaders which relates to the oft-encountered idea that highlanders are 'purer' in terms of less intermarriages with occupiers. For residents of mountainous areas, such as Sfakia in western Crete, the aridness and rockiness of the mountains is emphasised as an element of pride and is often compared to the alleged soft-soiled mountains of others parts of Greece or the world.[16]

Gorges, rivers and lakes

The island has a number of gorges, such as the

Kato Zakros, Sitia) and Richtis Gorge and (Richtis) waterfall at Exo Mouliana in Sitia.[17][18][19][20]

The rivers of Crete include the

Geropotamos River, the Koiliaris, the Anapodiaris, the Almiros, the Giofyros, the Keritis, and Megas Potamos. There are only two freshwater lakes in Crete: Lake Kournas and Lake Agia, which are both in Chania regional unit.[21] Lake Voulismeni at the coast, at Aghios Nikolaos, was formerly a freshwater lake but is now connected to the sea, in Lasithi.[22] Three artificial lakes created by dams also exist in Crete: the lake of Aposelemis Dam
, the lake of Potamos Dam, and the lake of Mpramiana Dam.

Surrounding islands

Detailed map of Crete and outlying islands

A large number of islands, islets, and rocks hug the coast of Crete. Many are visited by tourists, some are only visited by archaeologists and biologists. Some are environmentally protected. A small sample of the islands includes:

Off the south coast, the island of Gavdos is located 26 nautical miles (48 km) south of Hora Sfakion and is the southernmost point of Europe.

Climate

Crete straddles two climatic zones, the

hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh). The higher elevations fall into the warm-summer Mediterranean climate category (Csb)[23] while the mountain peaks (>2,000 meters) might feature a cold-summer Mediterranean climate (Csc) or a continental climate
(Dfb or Dfc). The atmosphere can be quite humid, depending on the proximity to the sea, while winter is fairly mild. Snowfall is common on the mountains between November and May, but rare in the low-lying areas.

Flag harbour Chania, Crete, Greece

The south coast, including the

swallows remain year-round rather than migrate to Africa. The fertile region around Ierapetra, on the southeastern corner of the island, has year-round agricultural production, with summer vegetables and fruit produced in greenhouses throughout the winter.[24] Western Crete (Chania province) receives more rain and the soils there suffer more erosion compared to the Eastern part of Crete.[25]

Average annual temperatures reach up to 21.0°C in South Crete. Crete holds the record for the highest temperatures ever recorded in Europe during November and January.[26] [27] [28] [29] According to the Hellenic National Meteorological Service, South Crete receives the most sunshine in Greece with more than 3,257 hours of sunshine per year.[30]

Climate data for Heraklion 1955-2010 (
HNMS
)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 29.9
(85.8)
28.8
(83.8)
34.0
(93.2)
37.5
(99.5)
38.0
(100.4)
41.3
(106.3)
43.6
(110.5)
44.5
(112.1)
39.5
(103.1)
37.0
(98.6)
32.8
(91.0)
28.5
(83.3)
44.5
(112.1)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 15.3
(59.5)
15.5
(59.9)
17.0
(62.6)
20.1
(68.2)
23.6
(74.5)
27.3
(81.1)
28.9
(84.0)
28.8
(83.8)
26.6
(79.9)
23.6
(74.5)
20.2
(68.4)
17.1
(62.8)
22.0
(71.6)
Daily mean °C (°F) 12.1
(53.8)
12.2
(54.0)
13.6
(56.5)
16.6
(61.9)
20.4
(68.7)
24.5
(76.1)
26.4
(79.5)
26.3
(79.3)
23.7
(74.7)
20.3
(68.5)
16.8
(62.2)
13.8
(56.8)
18.9
(66.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 9.1
(48.4)
8.9
(48.0)
9.8
(49.6)
12.0
(53.6)
15.1
(59.2)
19.2
(66.6)
21.9
(71.4)
22.0
(71.6)
19.5
(67.1)
16.7
(62.1)
13.5
(56.3)
10.9
(51.6)
14.9
(58.8)
Record low °C (°F) 0.0
(32.0)
−0.8
(30.6)
0.3
(32.5)
4.2
(39.6)
6.0
(42.8)
12.2
(54.0)
14.5
(58.1)
16.6
(61.9)
12.0
(53.6)
8.7
(47.7)
4.2
(39.6)
2.4
(36.3)
−0.8
(30.6)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 91.0
(3.58)
69.0
(2.72)
53.4
(2.10)
28.2
(1.11)
13.4
(0.53)
2.9
(0.11)
0.8
(0.03)
0.9
(0.04)
16.7
(0.66)
59.4
(2.34)
59.6
(2.35)
85.6
(3.37)
480.9
(18.94)
Average rainy days 16.0 13.6 11.4 7.6 4.6 1.3 0.3 0.5 2.8 7.5 10.6 15.2 91.4
Average
relative humidity
(%)
68.4 66.4 65.9 62.3 61.2 57.0 57.1 59.1 61.9 65.7 67.9 68.3 63.4
Mean monthly sunshine hours 119.9 132.3 181.5 234.8 298.5 356.2 368.3 343.5 275.8 206.9 145.5 115.4 2,778.6
Source 1:
Source 2: meteo-climat (extremes)[33]
Climate data for Lentas
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 21.9
(71.4)
25.2
(77.4)
24.2
(75.6)
29.7
(85.5)
36.7
(98.1)
39.6
(103.3)
43.3
(109.9)
42.7
(108.9)
36.7
(98.1)
33.2
(91.8)
27.2
(81.0)
23.3
(73.9)
43.3
(109.9)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 16.3
(61.3)
16.7
(62.1)
17.9
(64.2)
21.3
(70.3)
24.8
(76.6)
29.0
(84.2)
33.0
(91.4)
32.8
(91.0)
29.7
(85.5)
25.7
(78.3)
22.0
(71.6)
18.2
(64.8)
24.0
(75.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) 13.8
(56.8)
14.1
(57.4)
15.2
(59.4)
18.2
(64.8)
21.6
(70.9)
25.6
(78.1)
29.4
(84.9)
29.4
(84.9)
26.6
(79.9)
22.9
(73.2)
19.4
(66.9)
15.8
(60.4)
21.0
(69.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 11.3
(52.3)
11.6
(52.9)
12.4
(54.3)
15.1
(59.2)
18.3
(64.9)
22.2
(72.0)
25.8
(78.4)
26.1
(79.0)
23.5
(74.3)
20.0
(68.0)
16.9
(62.4)
13.3
(55.9)
18.0
(64.5)
Record low °C (°F) 2.3
(36.1)
2.3
(36.1)
3.9
(39.0)
7.8
(46.0)
12.8
(55.0)
16.3
(61.3)
20.8
(69.4)
22.3
(72.1)
15.2
(59.4)
14.3
(57.7)
10.2
(50.4)
5.3
(41.5)
2.3
(36.1)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 82.2
(3.24)
61.7
(2.43)
41.1
(1.62)
13.6
(0.54)
8.8
(0.35)
5.4
(0.21)
0.1
(0.00)
1.1
(0.04)
10.3
(0.41)
30.2
(1.19)
45.1
(1.78)
61.0
(2.40)
360.6
(14.21)
Source: National Observatory of Athens Monthly Bulletins (Dec 2011-Jan 2024)[34] [35] and World Meteorological Organization[36]

Human geography

Crete is the most populous island in Greece with a population of more than 600,000 people. Approximately 42% live in Crete's main cities and towns whilst 45% live in rural areas.[37]

Administration

Crete Region
Περιφέρεια Κρήτης (
Administrative region of Greece
Official logo of Crete Region
Location of Crete Region
Coordinates: 35°13′N 24°55′E / 35.21°N 24.91°E / 35.21; 24.91
Country Greece
Established1912
CapitalHeraklion
Regional units
Government
 • Regional governor
UTC+3 (EEST)
ISO 3166 codeGR-M
Websitewww.crete.gov.gr

Crete with its nearby islands form the Crete Region (

municipalities
.

Since 1 January 2011, the regional governor is Stavros Arnaoutakis of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement. First elected in 2010, he was re-elected in 2014, 2019 and 2023.

Cities

Heraklion is the largest city and capital of Crete, holding more than a fourth of the island's population. Chania was the capital until 1971. The principal cities are:

Demographics

According to official census data by the Hellenic Statistical Authority, the region's population has increased by 1,343 people between 2011 and 2021, experiencing a rise of 0.22%.[42] The island is home to 308,608 men and 315,800 women, accounting for 49.4% and 50.6% of the population respectively.

Population of Crete according to ELSTAT
Crete 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021
Population 502,165 540,054 601,131 623,065 624,408
Change --- --- --- +7.27% +10.7% +3.58% +0.22%

The island is divided into four regional units, Heraklion, Rethymno, Chania, and Lasithi.

Cretan regional units by population according to ELSTAT
Regional Unit Population (2021) Change between 2011 and 2021 (%)
Heraklion 305,017 -0.2%
Lasithi 77,819 +3.2%
Rethymno 84,866 -0.9%
Chania 156,706 +0.1%

Economy

The economy of Crete is predominantly based on services and tourism. However, agriculture also plays an important role and Crete is one of the few Greek islands that can support itself without a tourism industry.[43] The economy began to change visibly during the 1970s as tourism gained in importance. Although an emphasis remains on agriculture and stock breeding, because of the climate and terrain of the island, there has been a drop in manufacturing, and an observable expansion in its service industries (mainly tourism-related). All three sectors of the Cretan economy (agriculture/farming, processing-packaging, services), are directly connected and interdependent. The island has a per capita income much higher than the Greek average, whereas unemployment is at approximately 4%, one-sixth of that of the country overall.[citation needed][when?]

As in many regions of Greece, viticulture and olive groves are significant; oranges, citrons and avocadoes are also cultivated. Until recently[when?] there were restrictions on the import of bananas to Greece, therefore bananas were grown on the island, predominantly in greenhouses. Dairy products are important to the local economy and there are a number of specialty cheeses such as mizithra, anthotyros, and kefalotyri.

20% of Greek wine is produced in Crete, mostly in the region of Peza [44]

The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was €9.4 billion in 2018, accounting for 5.1% of Greek economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was €17,800 or 59% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 68% of the EU average. Crete is the region in Greece with the fifth highest GDP per capita.[45]

Transport infrastructure

Airports

The island has three significant airports,

Nikos Kazantzakis at Heraklion, the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania and the smaller Sitia airport. The first two serve international routes, acting as the main gateways to the island for travellers. Work has begun plan to replace Heraklion airport with a new airport at Kasteli
, where there is presently an air force base, and the new Kasteli Airport is due to open by 2027.

Ferries

The island is well served by ferries, mostly from Piraeus, by ferry companies such as Minoan Lines and ANEK Lines with links to the Cyclades and Dodecanese islands. Seajets also operates routes to Cyclades.

The main ports from west to east are at Kissamos (ferry link to Peloponnese), Souda (Chania), Rethymno, Heraklion (links to Cyclades), Agios Nikolaos and Sitia (link to Dodecanese).

Road network

Motorway 90 (Greece) near Malia

Most of Crete is served by the road network. A modern highway is currently being upgraded along the north coast connecting the four major cities (Motorway 90), the sections bypassing the main cities (Heraklion to Malia, Rethymno, Chania to Kolymvari) are at motorway standard, while the sections in between, and west to Kissamos and east to Sitia, should be completed by 2028. A link will also connect to the new Kasteli international airport .[46]

In addition, a European Union study has been devised to promote a modern highway to connect the northern and southern parts of the island via a tunnel. The study proposal includes a 15.7 km (9.8 mi) section of road between the villages of Agia Varvara and Agia Deka in central Crete. The new road section forms part of the route between Messara in the south and Crete's largest city Heraklion, which houses the island's biggest airport and ferry links with mainland Greece.

Railway

Also, during the 1930s there was a narrow-gauge industrial railway in Heraklion, from Giofyros in the west side of the city to the port. There are now no railway lines on Crete. The government is planning the construction of a line from Chania to Heraklion via Rethymno.[47][48]

Development

The construction sector in Crete responded well during the pandemic and has come out strong in the post-recession recovery period. Total construction spending recovered and is expected to peak a record high (approximately 8% higher than 2019 average levels) signalling consistent expansion in construction projects and real estate investments in Crete.[49] The evolution of the private sector in Crete is tightly linked with the demand for tourism-related investments. Moreover, the recovery of the tourism sector is expected to lead to further growth in housing prices and rental demand.

Newspapers have reported that the Ministry of Mercantile Marine is ready to support the agreement between Greece,

free trade zone in southern Crete near Tympaki; the plan is to expropriate 850 ha (2,100 acres) of land. The port would handle two million containers per year, but the project has not been universally welcomed because of its environmental, economic and cultural impact.[50]
As of January 2013, the project has still not been confirmed, although there is mounting pressure to approve it, arising from Greece's difficult economic situation.

There are plans for underwater cables going from mainland Greece to Israel and Egypt passing by Crete and Cyprus: EuroAfrica Interconnector and EuroAsia Interconnector.[51][52] They would connect Crete electrically with mainland Greece, ending energy isolation of Crete. At present Greece covers electricity cost differences for Crete of around €300 million per year.[53]

History

Minoan rhyton in the form of a bull, Heraklion Archaeological Museum
Minoan fresco from Knossos, Heraklion Archaeological Museum
Minoan palace of Knossos

In the later Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, under the Minoans, Crete had a highly developed, literate civilization. It has been ruled by various ancient Greek entities, the

Second World War
.

Prehistory

Stone tools suggest that

goats, pigs and dogs as well as domesticated cereals and legumes; ancient Knossos was the site of one of these major Neolithic (then later Minoan) sites.[55] Other neolithic settlements include those at Kephala, Magasa, and Trapeza
.

Minoan civilization

During the

Mediterranean, and Minoan cultural influence extended to Cyprus, Canaan, and Egypt. Some scholars have speculated that legends such as that of the minotaur
have a historical basis in Minoan times.

Mycenaean civilization

In 1420 BC, the Minoan civilization was subsumed by the Mycenaean civilization from mainland Greece. The oldest samples of writing in the Greek language, as identified by Michael Ventris, is the Linear B archive from Knossos, dated approximately to 1425–1375 BC.[56]

Archaic and Classical period

After the

Greek historiography
shows little interest in Crete, as a result, there are few literary sources.

During the 6th to 4th centuries BC, Crete was comparatively free from warfare. The Gortyn code (5th century BC) is evidence for how codified civil law established a balance between aristocratic power and civil rights.

In the late 4th century BC, the aristocratic order began to collapse due to endemic infighting among the elite, and Crete's economy was weakened by prolonged wars between city states. During the 3rd century BC,

Lyttos and Polyrrhenia
challenged the primacy of ancient Knossos.

While the cities continued to prey upon one another, they invited into their feuds mainland powers like

Ptolemaic Egypt. In 220 BC the island was tormented by a war between two opposing coalitions of cities. As a result, the Macedonian king Philip V gained hegemony over Crete which lasted to the end of the Cretan War (205–200 BC), when the Rhodians opposed the rise of Macedon and the Romans
started to interfere in Cretan affairs.

In the 2nd century BC Ierapytna (Ierapetra) gained supremacy on eastern Crete.

Roman rule

Crete was involved in the

Constantine I to the diocese of Macedonia
.

Byzantine Empire – first period

Arkadi Monastery

Crete was separated from Cyrenaica c. 297. It remained a province within the eastern half of the Roman Empire, usually referred to as the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire after the establishment of a second capital in Constantinople by Constantine in 330. Crete was subjected to an attack by

Patriarchate of Constantinople.[58]

Arab rule

Skylitzes Chronicle
).

In the 820s, after 900 years as a Roman island, Crete was captured by Andalusian

Nikephoros Phokas' campaign
restored Crete to the Byzantine Empire, after a century and a half of Arab control.

Byzantine Empire – second period

In 961, Nikephoros Phokas returned the island to Byzantine rule after expelling the Arabs.[60] Extensive efforts at conversion of the populace were undertaken, led by John Xenos and Nikon "the Metanoeite".[61][62] The reconquest of Crete was a major achievement for the Byzantines, as it restored Byzantine control over the Aegean littoral and diminished the threat of Saracen pirates, for which Crete had provided a base of operations.

In 1204, the

Boniface of Montferrat[60] in the partition of spoils that followed. However, Boniface sold his claim to the Republic of Venice,[60] whose forces made up the majority of the Crusade. Venice's rival the Republic of Genoa
immediately seized the island and it was not until 1212 that Venice secured Crete as a colony.

Venetian rule

Fifteenth century map by Buondelmonti.

From 1212, during

Post-Byzantine Art, it is among the last flowerings of the artistic traditions of the fallen empire. This included the painter El Greco and the writers Nicholas Kalliakis (1645–1707), Georgios Kalafatis (professor) (c. 1652–1720), Andreas Musalus (c. 1665–1721) and Vitsentzos Kornaros.[63][64][65]

Frangokastello was built by the Venetians in 1371–74.

Under the rule of the Catholic

Fortezza at Rethymnon. Other fortifications include the Kazarma fortress at Sitia and Frangokastello
in Sfakia.

In 1492, Jews expelled from Spain settled on the island.[67] In 1574–77, Crete was under the rule of Giacomo Foscarini as Proveditor General, Sindace and Inquisitor. According to Starr's 1942 article, the rule of Giacomo Foscarini was a Dark Age for Jews and Greeks. Under his rule, non-Catholics had to pay high taxes with no allowances. In 1627, there were 800 Jews in the city of Candia, about seven percent of the city's population.[68] Marco Foscarini was the Doge of Venice during this time.

Ottoman rule

The Siege of Candia, regarded as one of the longest sieges in history, lasted from 1648 to 1669.
Nicolas Sanson. Crete in 1651
Cretan Muslim/Turkish
Kara Musa Pasha mosque, Rethymno

The Ottomans

Ottoman–Venetian Wars, some even prospering such as the family of Simone Stratigo (c. 1733 – c. 1824) who migrated to Dalmatia from Crete in 1669.[69]

Cretan Turks fled Crete because of the unrest, settling in Turkey, Rhodes, Syria, Libya and elsewhere. By 1900, 11% of the population was Muslim. Those remaining were relocated in the 1924 population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[72]

During Easter of 1770, a revolt against Ottoman rule in Crete was started by

Orlov's fleet
which never arrived. Daskalogiannis eventually surrendered to the Ottoman authorities. Today, the airport at Chania is named after him.

During the

London Protocol of 1830. Its administration by Muhammad Ali was confirmed in the Convention of Kütahya of 1833, but direct Ottoman rule was re-established by the Convention of London
of 3 July 1840.

Heraklion was surrounded by high walls and bastions and extended westward and southward by the 17th century. The most opulent area of the city was the northeastern quadrant where the elite were gathered. The city had received another name under the rule of the Ottomans, "the deserted city".

real-estate transactions during the Ottoman
rule. In the deserted city, minorities received equal rights in purchasing property. Christians and Jews were also able to buy and sell in the real-estate market.

The

Cretan Revolt of 1866–1869 or Great Cretan Revolution (Greek: Κρητική Επανάσταση του 1866) was a three-year uprising against Ottoman rule, the third and largest in a series of revolts between the end of the Greek War of Independence in 1830 and the establishment of the independent Cretan State in 1898. A particular event which caused strong reactions among the liberal circles of western Europe was the Holocaust of Arkadi. The event occurred in November 1866, as a large Ottoman force besieged the Arkadi Monastery
, which served as the headquarters of the rebellion. In addition to its 259 defenders, over 700 women and children had taken refuge in the monastery. After a few days of hard fighting, the Ottomans broke into the monastery. At that point, the abbot of the monastery set fire to the gunpowder stored in the monastery's vaults, causing the death of most of the rebels and the women and children sheltered there.

Cretan State 1898–1908

Revolutionaries at Theriso

Following the repeated uprisings in 1841, 1858, 1889, 1895 and 1897 by the Cretan people, who wanted to join Greece, the

Great Powers decided to restore order and in February 1897 sent in troops. The island was subsequently garrisoned by troops from Great Britain, France, Italy and Russia; Germany and Austro-Hungary withdrawing from the occupation in early 1898. During this period Crete was governed through a committee of admirals from the remaining four Powers. In March 1898 the Powers decreed, with the reluctant consent of the Sultan, that the island would be granted autonomy under Ottoman suzerainty in the near future.[73]

In September 1898 the

Prince George of Greece, appointed, arriving to take up his post in December 1898.[74] The flag of the Cretan State
was chosen by the Powers, with the white star representing the Ottoman suzerainty over the island.

Flag of Cretan State

In 1905, disagreements between Prince George and minister Eleftherios Venizelos over the question of the enosis (union with Greece), such as the Prince's autocratic style of government, resulted in the Theriso revolt, one of the leaders being Eleftherios Venizelos.

Prince George resigned as High Commissioner and was replaced by Alexandros Zaimis, a former Greek prime minister, in 1906. In 1908, taking advantage of domestic turmoil in Turkey as well as the timing of Zaimis's vacation away from the island, the Cretan deputies unilaterally declared union with Greece.

With the outbreak of the First Balkan War, the Greek government declared that Crete was now Greek territory. This was not recognised internationally until 1 December 1913.[74]

Second World War

German paratroopers landing on Crete during the Battle of Crete
War memorial in Kandanos

During World War II, the island was the scene of the

paratroop
operations for the rest of the war.

During the initial and subsequent occupation, German firing squads routinely executed male civilians in reprisal for the death of German soldiers; civilians were rounded up randomly in local villages for the mass killings, such as at the Massacre of Kondomari and the Viannos massacres. Two German generals were later tried and executed for their roles in the killing of 3,000 of the island's inhabitants.[75]

Civil War

In the aftermath of the

Psilorites. On 1 July 1947, the surviving 55 fighters of DSE were ambushed south of Psilorites, the few surviving members of the unit managed to join the rest of DSE in Lefka Ori.[76]

The Lefka Ori region in the west offered more favourable conditions for DSE's insurgency. In the summer of 1947 DSE raided and looted the Maleme Airport and motor depot at Chrysopigi. Its numbers swelled to approximately 300 fighters. The rise of DSE numbers compounded with crop failure on the island created serious logistical issues for the insurgents. The communists resorted to cattle rustling and crop confiscations which solved the problem only temporarily. In the autumn of 1947, the Greek government offered generous amnesty terms to Cretan DSE fighters and mountain bandits, many of whom opted to abandon armed struggle or defect to the nationalists. On 4 July 1948, government troops launched a large scale offensive on Samariá Gorge. Many DSE soldiers were killed in the fighting while the survivors broke into small armed bands. In October 1948, the secretary of the Cretan KKE Giorgos Tsitilos was killed in an ambush. By the following month only 34 DSE fighters remained active in Lefka Ori. The insurgency in Crete gradually withered away, with the last two hold outs surrendering in 1974, 25 years after the conclusion of the war in mainland Greece.[77]

Tourism

Matala beach
Resort in Rethymno

Crete is one of the most popular holiday destinations in Greece. 15% of all arrivals in Greece come through the city of Heraklion (port and airport), while charter journeys to Heraklion make up about 20% of all charter flights in Greece Archived 29 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine. The number of hotel beds on the island increased by 53% in the period between 1986 and 1991.

Today, the island's tourism infrastructure includes a wide range of accommodation; including large luxury hotels with their complete facilities, swimming pools, sports and recreation, smaller family-owned apartments, camping facilities and others. Visitors reach the island via two international airports in Heraklion and

Rethimno, Agios Nikolaos and Sitia
.

Popular tourist attractions include the archaeological sites of the Minoan civilisation, the Venetian old city and port of Chania, the Venetian castle at Rethymno, the gorge of Samaria, the islands of Chrysi, Elafonisi, Gramvousa, Spinalonga and the Palm Beach of Vai, which is the largest natural palm forest in Europe.

Transportation

Crete has an extensive bus system with regular services across the north of the island and from north to south. There are two regional bus stations in Heraklion. Bus routes and timetables can be found on KTEL website.[79]

Holiday homes and immigration

Crete's mild climate attracts interest from northern Europeans who want a holiday home or residence on the island. EU citizens have the right to freely buy property and reside with little formality.[80] In the cities of Heraklion and Chania, the average price per square metre of apartments ranges from €1,670 to €1,700.[81] A growing number of real estate companies cater mainly to British immigrants, followed by Dutch, German, Scandinavian and other European nationalities wishing to own a home in Crete. The British immigrants are concentrated in the western regional units of Chania and Rethymno and to a lesser extent in Heraklion and Lasithi.[47]

Archaeological sites and museums

The area has a large number of archaeological sites, including the Minoan sites of

Koufonisi
, which includes Minoan, Roman, and World War II era ruins (nb. due to conservation concerns, access to Koufonisi has been restricted for the last few years).

There are museums throughout Crete. The Heraklion Archaeological Museum displays most of the archaeological finds from the Minoan era and was reopened in 2014.[82]

Harmful effects

Helen Briassoulis, in a qualitative analysis, proposed in the Journal of Sustainable Tourism that Crete is affected by tourism applying pressure to it to develop at an unhealthy rate, and that informal, internal systems within the country are forced to adapt. According to her, these forces have strengthened in three stages: from the period from 1960 to 1970, 1970–1990, and 1990 to the present. During this first period, tourism was a largely positive force, pushing modern developments like running water and electricity onto the largely rural countryside. However, beginning in the second period and especially in the third period leading up to the present day, tourist companies became more pushy with deforestation and pollution of Crete's natural resources. The country is then pulled into an interesting parity, where these companies only upkeep those natural resources that are directly essential to their industry.[83]

Fauna and flora

Fauna

Crete is isolated from mainland Europe, Asia, and Africa, and this is reflected in the diversity of the fauna and flora. As a result, the fauna and flora of Crete have many clues to the evolution of species. There are no animals that are dangerous to humans on the island of Crete in contrast to other parts of Greece. Indeed, the ancient Greeks attributed the lack of large mammals such as bears, wolves, jackals, and venomous snakes, to the labour of

Apostle Paul
, who lived on the island of Crete for two years, with his exorcisms and blessings.

The Natural History Museum of Crete, operates under the direction of the University of Crete and two aquariums – Aquaworld in Hersonissos and Cretaquarium in Gournes, display sea creatures common in Cretan waters.

Prehistoric fauna

dwarf mammoths, dwarf deer, and giant flightless owls were native to Pleistocene Crete.[84][85] Their ancestors could have reached the island in the time of the Messinian salinity crisis
.

Mammals

Mammals of Crete include the vulnerable

The

relic species of the Crocidura shrews of which fossils have been found that can be dated to the Pleistocene era. Today it can only be found in the highlands of Crete.[93] It is considered to be the only surviving remnant of the endemic species of the Pleistocene Mediterranean islands.[94]

Bat species include:

  • The Kri-kri (the Cretan ibex) lives in protected natural parks at the gorge of Samaria and the island of Agios Theodoros.
    The Kri-kri (the Cretan ibex) lives in protected natural parks at the gorge of Samaria and the island of Agios Theodoros.
  • Male Cretan ibex
    Male Cretan ibex
  • Cretan Hound or Kritikos Lagonikos, one of Europe's oldest hunting dog breeds
    Cretan Hound or Kritikos Lagonikos, one of Europe's oldest hunting dog breeds

Birds

Varieties of birds include eagles (can be seen in

European kestrel, tawny owl, little owl, hooded crow, alpine chough, red-billed chough, and the Eurasian hoopoe.[96][97] The population of griffon vultures in Crete is the largest insular one of the species in the world and consists of the majority of the griffon vulture population in Greece.[98]

Reptiles and amphibians

Tortoises can be seen throughout the island. Snakes can be found hiding under rocks. Toads and frogs reveal themselves when it rains.

Reptiles include the

There are four species of snake on the island and these are not dangerous to humans. The four species include the

leopard snake (locally known as Ochendra), the Balkan whip snake (locally called Dendrogallia), the dice snake (called Nerofido in Greek), and the only venomous snake is the nocturnal cat snake which has evolved to deliver a weak venom at the back of its mouth to paralyse geckos and small lizards, and is not dangerous to humans.[95][100]

Sea turtles include the

loggerhead turtle which are both threatened species.[99] The loggerhead turtle nests and hatches on north-coast beaches around Rethymno and Chania, and south-coast beaches along the gulf of Mesara.[101]

Amphibians include the

Arthropods

hummingbird moth.[103] There are several species of scorpion such as Euscorpius
carpathicus whose venom is generally no more potent than a mosquito bite.

Crustaceans and molluscs

River crabs include the semi-terrestrial Potamon potamios crab.[95] Edible snails are widespread and can cluster in the hundreds waiting for rainfall to reinvigorate them.

Sealife

The loggerhead sea turtle nests and hatches along the beaches of Rethymno and Chania and the gulf of Messara.

Apart from terrestrial mammals, the seas around Crete are rich in large marine mammals. The endangered Mediterranean monk seal lives in almost all the coasts of the country. The area south of Crete, known as the Greek Abyss, hosts whales, sperm whales, dolphins and porpoises.[104] The Minoan frescoes depicting dolphins in Queen's Megaron at Knossos indicate that Minoans were well aware of and celebrated these creatures. Squid, octopus, sea turtles and hammerhead sharks live or traverse along the coast.

Some of the fish of the waters around Crete include:

The

Gournes and Hersonissos respectively.[106][107]

Flora

The Minoans contributed to the deforestation of Crete. Further deforestation occurred in the 1600s "so that no more local supplies of firewood were available".[108]

Common wildflowers include: camomile, daisy, gladiolus, hyacinth,

tamarisk.[111]
Trees tend to be taller to the west of the island where water is more abundant.

Environmentally protected areas

Environmentally protected areas include the island of

Samaria Gorge is a World Biosphere Reserve and Richtis Gorge
is protected for its landscape diversity. Also, Sitia UNESCO Global Geopark, added in 2015 in UNESCO Geoparks, is located on the easternmost edge of Crete.

Mythology

Diktaean Cave

Crete has a strong association with ancient

Greek gods but is also connected with the Minoan civilization
.

According to

Sarpedon
, and Minos.

The

Rhadamanthys became the ruler of the Elysian fields
.

Culture

Crete has its own distinctive

Cretan lyra and the laouto) and has many indigenous dances, the most noted of which is the Pentozali. Since the 1980s and certainly in the 1990s onwards there has been a proliferation of Cultural Associations that teach dancing (in Western Crete where many focus on rizitiko singing). These Associations often perform in official events but also become stages for people to meet and engage in traditionalist practices. The topic of tradition and the role of Cultural Associations in reviving it is often debated throughout Crete.[113]

Cretan authors have made important contributions to

Vikentios Kornaros, creator of the 17th-century epic romance Erotokritos (Greek Ερωτόκριτος), and, in the 20th century, Nikos Kazantzakis. In the Renaissance, Crete was the home of the Cretan School of icon painting, which influenced El Greco and through him subsequent European painting.[citation needed
]

Cretans are proud of their island and customs, and men often don elements of traditional dress in everyday life: knee-high black riding boots (stivania), vráka breeches tucked into the boots at the knee, black shirt and black headdress consisting of a fishnet-weave kerchief worn wrapped around the head or draped on the shoulders (mantili / kefalomantilo). Men often grow large mustaches as a mark of pride, manhood and valiance.

Cretan society is known in Greece and internationally for family and clan vendettas which persist on the island to date.[114][115] Cretans also have a tradition of keeping firearms at home, stemming from the era of resistance against the Ottoman Empire. Nearly every rural household on Crete has at least one unregistered gun.[114] Guns are subject to strict regulation from the Greek government, and in recent years an effort to control firearms in Crete has been undertaken by the Greek police, but with limited success.

  • Dancers from Sfakia
    Dancers from Sfakia
  • Dakos, traditional Cretan appetizer. Paximadi (hard bread) topped with fresh tomato, fetta cheese, oregano and olives drizzled with olive oil.
    Dakos, traditional Cretan appetizer. Paximadi (hard bread) topped with fresh tomato, fetta cheese, oregano and olives drizzled with olive oil.

Sports

Crete has many football clubs playing in the local leagues. During the 2011–12 season,

Greek Superleague
.

Notable people

Domenikos Theotokopoulos (El Greco)
Eleftherios Venizelos
Psarantonis

Notable people from Crete include:

See also

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General and cited sources

External links

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