Crimean Khanate

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak
Taht-i Qırım ve Deşt-i Qıpçaq
تخت قريم و دشت قپچاق (Crimean Tatar)
1441–1783
Flag of Crimean Khanate
Flag
Coat of arms (17th–18th century)[1] of Crimean Khanate
Coat of arms
(17th–18th century)[1]
The limit of expansion of the Crimean Khanate (Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak) on the lands of the Ulus of Jochi as of 1523.[2]
The limit of expansion of the Crimean Khanate (Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak) on the lands of the Ulus of Jochi as of 1523.[2]
StatusKhanate[a]
Capital
Common languages
  • Crimean
GovernmentElective monarchy
Khan 
• 1441–1466
Hacı I Giray (first)
• 1777–1783
Şahin Giray (last)
History 
• Established
1441
1783
CurrencyAkçe
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Golden Horde
Principality of Theodoro
Russian Empire
Today part of

The Crimean Khanate,[b] self-defined as the Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak,[7][c] and in old European historiography and geography known as Little Tartary,[d] was a Crimean Tatar state existing from 1441–1783, the longest-lived of the Turkic khanates that succeeded the empire of the Golden Horde. Established by Hacı I Giray in 1441, it was regarded as the direct heir to the Golden Horde and to Desht-i-Kipchak.[8][9]

In 1783, violating the 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (which had guaranteed non-interference of both Russia and the Ottoman Empire in the affairs of the Crimean Khanate), the Russian Empire annexed the khanate. Among the European powers, only France came out with an open protest against this act, due to the longstanding Franco-Ottoman alliance.[10]

Naming and geography

The map of the Crimean Khanate by Pieter van der Aa, 1707

The Crimean Khans, considering their state as the heir and legal successor of the

Desht-i Kipchak, called themselves khans of "the Great Horde, the Great State and the Throne of the Crimea". The full title of the Crimean khans, used in official documents and correspondence with foreign rulers, varying slightly from document to document during the three centuries of the Khanate's existence, was as follows: "By the Grace and help of the blessed and highest Lord, the great padishah of the Great Horde, and the Great State, and the Throne of the Crimea, and all the Nogai, and the mountain Circassians, and the tats and tavgachs, and The Kipchak steppe and all the Tatars" (Crimean Tatar: Tañrı Tebareke ve Ta'alânıñ rahimi ve inayeti milen Uluğ Orda ve Uluğ Yurtnıñ ve taht-ı Qırım ve barça Noğaynıñ ve tağ ara Çerkaçnıñ ve Tat imilen Tavğaçnıñ ve Deşt-i Qıpçaqnıñ ve barça Tatarnıñ uluğ padişahı, تنڭرى تبرك و تعالينيڭ رحمى و عنايتى ميلان اولوغ اوردا و اولوغ يورتنيڭ و تخت قريم و بارچا نوغاينيڭ و طاغ ارا چركاچنيڭ و تاد يميلان طوغاچنيڭ و دشت قپچاقنيڭ و بارچا تاتارنيڭ اولوغ پادشاهى).[11][12]

According to Oleksa Hayvoronsky, the inhabitants of the Crimean Khanate in Crimean Tatar usually referred to their state as "Qırım yurtu, Crimean Yurt", which can be translated into English as "the country of Crimea" or "Crimean country".[13][14]

English-speaking writers during the 18th and early 19th centuries often called the territory of the Crimean Khanate and of the Lesser Nogai Horde Little Tartary (or subdivided it as Crim Tartary (also Krim Tartary) and Kuban Tartary).[15] The name "Little Tartary" distinguished the area from (Great) Tartary – those areas of central and northern Asia inhabited by Turkic peoples or Tatars.

The Khanate included the

Mius River as far north as the Dnieper bend and the upper Tor River (a tributary of the Donets).[16]

History

See also: History of Crimea

Pre-history

Pontic steppes
, c. 1015

The first known

Juchi, known as the Golden Horde or Ulu Ulus. In this era, the role of Turkic peoples increased.[19] Around this time, the local Kipchaks took the name of Tatars (tatarlar).[20][21][22][23]

In the Horde period, the khans of the Golden Horde were the Supreme rulers of the Crimea, but their governors –

Qırım (Solhat). This name then gradually spread to the entire Peninsula. The second center of Crimea was the valley adjacent to Qırq Yer and Bağçasaray
.

Eski Qırım
(Solhat), built in the Golden Horde period

The multi-ethnic population of Crimea then consisted mainly of those who lived in the steppe and foothills of the Peninsula:

Crimean Greeks, Crimean Goths, Alans, and Armenians, who lived mainly in cities and mountain villages. The Crimean nobility was mostly of both Kipchak and Horden origin.[24][25]

Horde rule for the peoples who inhabited the Crimean Peninsula was, in general, painful. The rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly organized punitive campaigns in the Crimea when the local population refused to pay tribute. An example is the well-known campaign of the Nogai Khan in 1299, which resulted in a number of Crimean cities suffering. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to manifest themselves in Crimea.

In 1303, in Crimea, the most famous written monument of the Kypchak or Cuman language was created (named in

Kypchak "tatar tili") – "Codex Cumanicus", which is the oldest memorial in the Crimean Tatar language and of great importance for the history of Kypchak and Oghuz dialects – as directly related to the Kipchaks of the Black Sea steppes and Crimea.[26][22]

Dürbe of Canike Hanım

There are legends that, in the 14th century, the Crimea was repeatedly ravaged by the army of the

Edigei, and made peace.[27]

During the reign of Canike Hanım, Tokhtamysh's daughter, in Qırq-Or, she supported Hacı I Giray in the struggle against the descendants of Tokhtamysh, Kichi-Muhammada and Sayid Ahmad, who as well as Hacı Giray claimed full power in the Crimea[28] and probably saw him as her heir to the Crimean throne.[29] In the sources of the 16th–18th centuries, the opinion according to which the separation of the Crimean Tatar state was raised to Tokhtamysh, and Canike was the most important figure in this process, completely prevailed.[30]

Establishment

The Crimean Khanate originated in the early 15th century when certain clans of the

Crimean Peninsula (except the south and southwest coast and ports, controlled by the Republic of Genoa & Trebizond Empire
) as well as the adjacent steppe.

Ottoman protectorate

Map of the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire

The sons of Hacı I Giray contended against each other to succeed him. The Ottomans intervened and installed one of the sons, Meñli I Giray, on the throne. Menli I Giray, took the imperial title "Sovereign of Two Continents and Khan of Khans of Two Seas."[32]

In 1475 the Ottoman forces, under the command of

Caffa (modern Feodosiya). Thenceforth the khanate was a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan enjoyed veto power over the selection of new Crimean khans. The Empire annexed the Crimean coast but recognized the legitimacy of the khanate rule of the steppes, as the khans were descendants of Genghis Khan
.

A miniature depicting the Ottoman campaign in Hungary in 1566, with Crimean Tatars as vanguard

In 1475, the Ottomans imprisoned Meñli I Giray for three years for resisting the invasion. After returning from captivity in Constantinople, he accepted the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, Ottoman sultans treated the khans more as allies than subjects.[33] The khans continued to have a foreign policy independent from the Ottomans in the steppes of Little Tartary. The khans continued to mint coins and use their names in Friday prayers, two important signs of sovereignty. They did not pay tribute to the Ottoman Empire; instead the Ottomans paid them in return for their services of providing skilled outriders and frontline cavalry in their campaigns.[34] Later on, Crimea lost power in this relationship as the result of a crisis in 1523, during the reign of Meñli's successor, Mehmed I Giray. He died that year and beginning with his successor, from 1524 on, Crimean khans were appointed by the Sultan.[35] The alliance of the Crimean Tatars and the Ottomans was comparable to the

Poland, Hungary, and Persia.[36]

Victory over the Golden Horde

The Crimean Khanate in 1502, with the rest of Europe for context.

In 1502, Meñli I Giray defeated the last khan of the Great Horde, which put an end to the Horde's claims on Crimea. The Khanate initially chose as its capital Salaçıq near the Qırq Yer fortress. Later, the capital was moved a short distance to Bahçeseray, founded in 1532 by Sahib I Giray. Both Salaçıq and the Qırq Yer fortress today are part of the expanded city of Bahçeseray.

Slave trade

Further information:
Crimean slave trade and Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe

The slave trade was the backbone of the economy of the Crimean Khanate.[37][38]

The Crimeans frequently mounted raids into the

Muscovy
to enslave people whom they could capture; for each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. These campaigns by Crimean forces were either sefers ("sojourns"), officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, or çapuls ("despoiling"), raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers.

For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive

Caffa, an Ottoman city on Crimean peninsula (and thus not part of the Khanate), was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.[40][41] In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves.[42]

Author and historian Brian Glyn Williams writes:

Fisher estimates that in the sixteenth century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost around 20,000 individuals a year and that from 1474 to 1694, as many as a million Commonwealth citizens were carried off into Crimean slavery.[43]

Early modern sources are full of descriptions of sufferings of Christian slaves captured by the Crimean Tatars in the course of their raids:

It seems that the position and everyday conditions of a slave depended largely on his/her owner. Some slaves indeed could spend the rest of their days doing exhausting labor: as the Crimean vizir (minister) Sefer Gazi Aga mentions in one of his letters, the slaves were often "a plough and a scythe" of their owners. Most terrible, perhaps, was the fate of those who became galley-slaves, whose sufferings were poeticized in many Ukrainian dumas (songs). ... Both female and male slaves were often used for sexual purposes.[42]

Alliances and conflicts with Poland and Zaporozhian Cossacks

Tatars fighting Zaporozhian Cossacks, by Józef Brandt

The Crimeans had a complex relationship with

Zaporizhian Sich. The assistance of İslâm III Giray during the Khmelnytsky Uprising in 1648 contributed greatly to the initial momentum of military successes for the Cossacks.[44] The relationship with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was also exclusive, as it was the home dynasty of the Girays, who sought sanctuary in Lithuania in the 15th century before establishing themselves on the Crimean peninsula.[45]

Struggle with Muscovy

The Crimean Khanate in about 1600. Note that the areas marked Poland and Muscovy were claimed rather than administered and were thinly populated.

In the middle of the 16th century, the Crimean Khanate asserted a claim to be the successor to the Golden Horde, which entailed asserting the right of rule over the Tatar khanates of the Caspian-Volga region, particularly the

Kazan Khanate and Astrakhan Khanate. This claim pitted it against Muscovy for dominance in the region. A successful campaign by Devlet I Giray upon the Russian capital in 1571 culminated in the burning of Moscow, and he thereby gained the sobriquet, That Alğan (seizer of the throne).[46] The following year, however, the Crimean Khanate lost access to the Volga once and for all due to its catastrophic defeat in the Battle of Molodi
.

Don Cossacks reached lower Don, Donets and Azov by the 1580s and thus became the north-eastern neighbours of the khanate. They attracted peasants, serfs and gentry fleeing internal conflicts, over-population and intensifying exploitation. Just as Zaporozhians protected the southern borders of the Commonwealth, Don Cossacks protected Muscovy and themselves attacked the khanate and Ottoman fortresses.[47][48]

Relationship with Circassians

Under the influence of the Crimean Tatars and of the Ottoman Empire, large numbers of Circassians converted to Islam. Circassian mercenaries and recruits played an important role in the khan's armies, khans often married Circassian women and it was a custom for young Crimean princes to spend time in Circassia training in the art of warfare.[49] Several conflicts occurred between Circassians and Crimean Tatars in the 18th century, with the former defeating an army of Khan Kaplan Giray and Ottoman auxiliaries in the battle of Kanzhal.[50]

Decline

Main article: Annexation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire

The

Azak upon the territories of the Crimean Khanate. These raids ruined trade routes and severely depopulated many important regions. By the time Evliya Çelebi had arrived almost all the towns he visited were affected by the Cossack raids. In fact, the only place Evliya Çelebi considered safe from the Cossacks was the Ottoman fortress at Arabat.[51]

Map of the sparsely populated Wild Fields in the 17th century

The decline of the Crimean Khanate was a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and a change in Eastern Europe's balance of power favouring its neighbours. Crimean Tatars often returned from Ottoman campaigns without loot, and Ottoman subsidies were less likely for unsuccessful campaigns. Without sufficient guns, the Tatar cavalry suffered a significant loss against European and Russian armies with modern equipment. By the late 17th century, Russia became too strong for Crimean Khan to pillage and the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) outlawed further raids. The era of great slave raids in Russia and Ukraine was over, although brigands and Nogay raiders continued their attacks, and consequently Russian hatred of the Crimean Khanate did not decrease. These politico-economic losses led in turn to erosion of the khan's support among noble clans, and internal conflicts for power ensued. The Nogays, who provided a significant portion of the Crimean military forces, also took back their support from the khans towards the end of the empire.

Skirmish with Tatars, by Maksymilian Gierymski

In the first half of the 17th century,

Nogays
. By becoming an important ally and later part of the Russian Empire and taking an oath to protect its southeastern borders, the Kalmyk Khanate took an active part in all Russian war campaigns in the 17th and 18th centuries, providing up to 40,000 fully equipped horsemen.

Little Tartary (Crimean Khanate) borders in 1715 (Herman Moll)

The united Russian and Ukrainian forces attacked the Crimean Khanate during the

Crimean Campaigns. It was during the Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739) that the Russians, under the command of Field-Marshal Münnich, penetrated the Crimean Peninsula itself, burning and destroying everything in it.[citation needed
]

More warfare ensued during the reign of

Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji, which made the Crimean Khanate independent from the Ottoman Empire and aligned it with the Russian Empire
.

The rule of the last Crimean khan Şahin Giray was marked with increasing Russian influence and outbursts of violence from the khan administration towards internal opposition. On 8 April 1783, in violation of the treaty (after some parts of treaty had been already violated by Crimeans and Ottomans), Catherine II intervened in the civil war, de facto annexing the whole peninsula as the Taurida Oblast. In 1787, Şahin Giray took refuge in the Ottoman Empire and was eventually executed, on Rhodes, by the Ottoman authorities for betrayal.[52] The royal Giray family survives to this day.

Through the 1792

Treaty of Bucharest transferred Bessarabia to Russian
control.

Government

See also: List of Crimean khans
Sergey Vasilievich Ivanov

All Khans were from the

Nogays, most of whom transferred their allegiance from Astrakhan to Crimea. Circassians (Atteghei) and Cossacks
also occasionally played roles in Crimean politics, alternating their allegiance between the khan and the beys. The Nogay pastoral nomads north of the Black Sea were nominally subject to the Crimean Khan. They were divided into the following groups: Budjak (from the Danube to the Dniester), Yedisan (from the Dniester to the Bug), Cemboylıq [crh] (Bug to Crimea), Yedickul (north of Crimea) and Kuban.

Internal affairs

Khan Qirim Girai, is known to have authorized the construction of many landmarks in Bakhchysarai and the Crimean Khanate.

Internally, the khanate territory was divided among the beys, and beneath the beys were

feudal. They were free and the Islamic law protected them from losing their rights. Apportioned by village, the land was worked in common and taxes were assigned to the whole village. The tax was one tenth of an agricultural product, one twentieth of a herd animal, and a variable amount of unpaid labor. During the reforms by the last khan Şahin Giray
, the internal structure was changed following the Turkish pattern: the nobles' landholdings were proclaimed the domain of the khan and reorganized into qadılıqs (provinces governed by representatives of the khan).

Crimean law

Meñli I Giray at the court of Ottoman sultan Bayezid II

Crimean law was based on Tatar law, Islamic law, and, in limited matters,

kadi. In theory, kadis answered to the kadiaskers
, but in practice they answered to the clan leaders and the khan. The kadis determined the day to day legal behavior of Muslims in the khanate.

Non-Muslim minorities

"Crimean Tatars travelling on the plains" by Carlo Bossoli

Substantial non-Muslim minorities –

millet system, they had their own religious and judicial institutions. They were subject to extra taxes in exchange for exemption from military service, living like Crimean Tatars and speaking dialects of Crimean Tatar.[53] Mikhail Kizilov writes: "According to Marcin Broniewski (1578), the Tatars seldom cultivated the soil themselves, with most of their land tilled by the Polish, Ruthenian, Russian, and Walachian (Moldavian) slaves."[42]

The Jewish population was concentrated in Çufut Kale ('Jewish Fortress'), a separate town near Bahçeseray that was the Khan's original capital. As with other minorities, they spoke a Turkic language. Crimean law granted them special financial and political rights as a reward, according to local folklore, for historic services rendered to an uluhane (first wife of a Khan). The capitation tax on Jews in Crimea was levied by the office of the uluhane in Bahçeseray.[54] Much like the Christian population of Crimea, the Jews were actively involved in the slave trade. Both Christians and Jews also often redeemed Christian and Jewish captives of Tatar raids in Eastern Europe.[42]

Economy

The

caravansarais and merchant quarters), tanners, and mills. Many monuments constructed under the Crimean Khanate were destroyed or left in ruins after the Russian invasion.[55] Mosques, in particular were demolished or remade into Orthodox churches.[55] The settled Crimean Tatars were engaged in trade, agriculture, and artisanry. Crimea was a center of wine, tobacco, and fruit cultivation. Bahçeseray kilims (oriental rugs) were exported to Poland
, and knives made by Crimean Tatar artisans were deemed the best by the Caucasian tribes. Crimea was also renowned for manufacture of silk and honey.

The

serfs were attracted to the freedom offered by the empty steppes of Ukraine. The slave raids entered Russian and Cossack folklore and many dumy were written elegising the victims' fates. This contributed to a hatred for the Khanate that transcended political or military concerns. But in fact, there were always small raids committed by both Tatars and Cossacks, in both directions.[57]
The last recorded major
Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) took place during the reign of Peter I (1682–1725).[57]

Crimean akçes

Crimean art and architecture

See also: Crimean Tatar literature

Selim II Giray fountain

The

Bakhchisaray
.

Bakhchisaray Fountain

The Crimean Khan's Palace in Bakhchysarai, by Carlo Bossoli

One of the notable constructors of Crimean art and architecture was Qırım Giray, who in 1764 commissioned the fountain master Omer the Persian to construct the Bakhchisaray Fountain. The Bakhchisaray Fountain or Fountain of Tears is a real case of life imitating art. The fountain is known as the embodiment of love of one of the last Crimean Khans, Khan Qırım Giray for his young wife, and his grief after her early death. The Khan was said to have fallen in love with a Polish girl in his harem. Despite his battle-hardened harshness, he was grievous and wept when she died, astonishing all those who knew him. He commissioned a marble fountain to be made, so that the rock would weep, like him, forever.[58]

Regions and administration

The nine regions outside of Qirim yurt (the peninsula) were:

The peninsula itself was divided by the khan's family and several beys. An estate controlled by a bey was called a beylik. Beys in the khanate were as important as the Polish

Salgir
. Part of his own estate included the wastelands with their newly created settlements.

Part of the main khan's estates were the lands of the Kalga who was next in the line of succession of the khan's family. He usually administered the eastern portion of the peninsula. The Kalga was also Chief Commander of the Crimean Army in the absence of the Khan. The next administrative position, called Nureddin, was also assigned to the khan's family. He administered the western region of the peninsula. There also was a specifically assigned position for the khan's mother or sister — Ana-beim — which was similar to the Ottomans' valide sultan. The senior wife of the Khan carried a rank of Ulu-beim and was next in importance to the Nureddin.

By the end of the khanate regional offices of the kaimakans, who administered smaller regions of the Crimean Khanate, were created.

  • Or Qapı (Perekop) had special status. The fortress was controlled either directly by the khan's family or by the family of Shirin.

Ottoman Empire territories

  • Kefe Eyalet, a seat of Ottomans in Crimea until 1774
  • Danube Vilayet

Notes

  1. ^ De facto independent, de jure vassal of the Ottoman Empire from 1475 to 1774.[3][4]
  2. ^ Crimean Tatar: Qırım Hanlığı, قریم خانلیغی.
  3. ^ Crimean Tatar: Taht-i Qırım ve Deşt-i Qıpçaq, تخت قريم و دشت قپچاق
    Other names include: Ulu(g) Orda, lit. 'Great Horde'; Ulu(g) yurt, lit. 'Great yurt'; Qırım yurt, lit. 'Crimean yurt'.
  4. Latin
    : Tartaria Minor.

References

  1. ^ Archive
  2. ^ Темушев 2021, p. 1026, see legend of the map (red dash line).
  3. ^ Колодзєйчик Д.: Крымское ханство как фактор стабилизации на геополитической карте Восточной Европы // Украина и соседние государства в XVII веке. Материалы международной конференции. СПб., 2004. С. 83-89
  4. ^ Крымское ханство: вассалитет или независимость? (Crimean Khanate: vassalage or independence?) // Османский мир и османистика. Сборник статей к 100-летию со дня рождения А. С. Тверитиновой (1910—1973). М., 2010. С. 288—298
  5. ^ Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Vol. 14. 1996. p. 77.
  6. ^ "Chaghatay Language and Literature". Iranica. Ebn Mohannā (Jamāl-al-Dīn, fl. early 8th/14th century, probably in Khorasan), for instance, characterized it as the purest of all Turkish languages (Doerfer, 1976, p. 243), and the khans of the Golden Horde (Radloff, 1870; Kurat; Bodrogligeti, 1962) and of the Crimea (Kurat), as well as the Kazan Tatars (Akhmetgaleeva; Yusupov), wrote in Chaghatay much of the time.
  7. ^ Andriy Domanovsky (2017). Загадки Истории Крымское Ханство (PDF) (in Russian). p. 11.
  8. ^ Протоколы посланий первых лиц Крымского юрта и договорных грамот ханской канцелярии. Из писем ханов Ислам-Гирея III и Мухаммед-Гирея IV к царю Алексею Михайловичу и королю Яну Казимиру "…Я, великий хан Ислам-Гирей, великий падишах Великой Орды и Великого Юрта, Дешт-Кыпчака, и престольного Крыма, и всех ногаев, и неисчислимых войск, и татов с тавгачами, и горных черкесов, да поможет Ему Аллах оставаться победителем до Судного дня, от Их величества
  9. ^ Зайцев И. В., Орешкова С. Ф. Османский мир и османистика стр. 259
  10. ^ Г. Л. Кессельбреннер (1994). Крым: страницы истории. Moscow: SvR-Аргус.
    ISBN 5-86949-003-0
    .
  11. ISBN 978-5-906952-38-7
  12. ISBN 5-89221-075-8
  13. ISBN 978-5-600-01505-0
  14. ISBN 978-966-96917-1-2
  15. ^ Edmund Spencer, Travels in Circassia, Krim-Tartary &c: Including a Steam Voyage Down the Danube from Vienna to Constantinople, and Round the Black Sea, Henry Colburn, 1837.
  16. ^ To His Most Serene and August Majesty Peter Alexovitz Absolute Lord of Russia &c. This map of Moscovy, Poland, Little Tartary, and ye Black Sea &c. is most Humbly Dedicated by H. Moll Geographer (raremaps.com). The map shows Little Tartary as reaching the left bank of the Dnipro, and as including the Kalmius but not the Mius, to the north reaching as far as the Tor (Torets) basin, somewhat south of Izium. Other geographers (but not Moll) sometimes included in "Lesser Tartary"[according to whom?] the territory of the Lesser Nogai Horde in Kuban, east of the Sea of Azov (in Moll's map labelled separately as Koeban Tartary).
  17. ^ The Crimea. Great historical guide. Alexander Andreev publishing house Liters 2014
  18. ^ "the Turkic peoples are becoming not only the ruling but also the state-forming people" – the Golden Horde and the Slavs
  19. ^ R. I. Kurteev, K. K. Choghoshvili. The ethnic term "Tatars" and the ethnic group "Crimean Tatars". – Through the ages: the peoples of the Crimea. Issue 1 \ Ed. N. Nikolaenko-Simferopol: Academy of Humanities, 1995
  20. ^ see Codex Cumanicus
  21. ^ Garkavets 2007, pp. 69–70.
  22. ^ a b Géza Lajos László József Kuun, Budapest Magyar Tudományos Akadémia (1880). Codex cumanicus, Bibliothecae ad templum divi Marci Venetiarum primum ex integro editit prolegomenis notis et compluribus glossariis instruxit comes Géza Kuun. Budapestini Scient. Academiae Hung.
  23. ISSN 2308-1856
    .
  24. ^ "Крымское ханство. Города и население" (in Russian). Крым.Реалии. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  25. ^ "Из истории крымтатарского народа. Кыпчаки" (in Russian). avdet.org. 5 January 2018. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  26. ^ Гаркавец А. Н. (1987). Кыпчакские языки. Алма-Ата: Наука. p. 18.
  27. ^ "Наступление Тимура на Москву 1395" (in Russian). histrf.ru. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  28. ^ Герцен & Могаричев 1993, p. 63.
  29. ^ Фадеева 2001.
  30. ^ Герцен & Могаричев 1993, p. 65.
  31. ^ Bakhchisaray history Archived 2009-01-06 at the Wayback Machine (in English)
  32. ^ "Saudi Aramco World: The Palace and the Poet". archive.aramcoworld.com. Retrieved 2020-07-08.
  33. Hansaray
    Organization
  34. ^ Bennigsen
  35. doi:10.1163/18775462-00901005
    . Retrieved December 4, 2022.
  36. ^ "WHKMLA: List of Wars of the Crimean Tatars". www.zum.de. Retrieved 2020-07-08.
  37. ^ Peter B. Brown, "Russian Serfdom's Demise and Russia's Conquest of the Crimean Khanate and the Northern Black Sea Littoral: Was There a Link?", in Eurasian Slavery, Ransom and Abolition in World History, 1200–1860 (Routledge, 2015), p. 346: "The slave trade was the backbone of the Crimean khanate's economy."
  38. ^ J. Otto Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949 (Greenwood, 1999), p. 110: "The slave trade formed the backbone of the Crimean Khanate's the role of the slave trade in the economy of the Crimean Khanate is a tragic example of Evil.<The historical fate of the Crimean Tatars Archived 2019-10-20 at the Wayback Machine – Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor Valery Vozgrin, 1992, Moscow (in Russian)
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  43. The Jamestown Foundation. p. 27. Archived from the original
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  55. ^ a b A history of Ukraine, Paul Robert Magocsi, 347, 1996
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  57. ^ a b The Russian Annexation of the Crimea 1772–1783, p. 26
  58. ISBN 1-86450-336-X

Works cited
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