Croatian art

There are also

Ščitarjevo near Zagreb, Nakovanj on the Pelješac

peninsula and elsewhere.

Copper Age

Ceramics of the Vučedol culture (named after

Eneolithic period (3500-2300 BC) are of extraordinary quality with black colour, high glow and specific decorative geometrical cuts encrusted with white, red or yellow colours. The influence of metal working techniques can be seen as potters construct with sheets of clay giving distinct edges where surfaces meet and the final pot is burnished for a gleaming look.^[1]

Neolithic figurines in moulded clay were stylized versions of human (particularly female) figures, and animals. The distinctive

Vučedol Dove is a pot in the shape of a bird, somewhat stylized, with impressed patterning around its body, a double-headed axe (labrys) on its neck and three legs for stability.^[1]

Bronze Age

The Bronze Age Vinkovci culture (named after the city of Vinkovci) is recognizable by its bronze fibulas that replaced previous objects like bone needles and buttons.

The Bronze culture of the Illyrians, ethno-tribal groups with distinct cultures, and art forms started to emerge from the cultures of the Copper Age. These Illyrian ethno-tribal areas were found in present-day Croatia, and Bosnia and Hercegovina. From the 7th Century BC, iron replaced bronze for tools and implements, only jewellery and art objects were still made out of bronze. The Celtic Hallstatt culture which bordered the Balkan region where the Illyrian ethno-tribal groups were living influenced them, but the Illyrian ethno-tribal groups formed their regional centers slightly differently. In the northern Balkan Peninsula, the Illyrian ethno-tribal groups had the cult of the dead, as evidenced from the richness of and care for burial sites, from which burial ceremonies are deduced. These burial sites show a long tradition of

tumuli

(known locally as gromile). The Illyrian

archaic Ionian plastic are also found in Japodian tribal areas. Numerous monumental sculptures are preserved, as well as walls of a citadel called Nezakcij near present-day Pula, one of the numerous Istrian cities from Iron Age

.

Arrival of the Celts

The 4th century BC saw the first

pottery wheel

, new styles of fibulas and different bronze and iron belts, which the local Illyrian tribes had not previously developed. The Celts also mixed with the Illyrian tribal groups in Slavonia, Istria, and Dalmatia.

Antiquity

Greek colonies

Split), Epetion (today called Stobreč).^[2]

These Greek cities were laid out geometrically and had villas, harbours, public buildings, temples and theatres. Pharos and Issa were strong Greek City States that showed their independence with their own coinage and maritime fleets. Unfortunately, besides painted pots and ceramic tanagra sculptures, there are few remaining daily living materials from this culture. Two of those are: the Croatian Apoxyomenos, and the Bronze head of goddess Artemis from the Greek City State of Issa, which dates from the 4th century BC. Another example is a stone relief of Kairos (god of joyfulness) from the Greek City-State Tragurion, which dates from the 3rd Century BC, and is associated with the famous Greek sculptor Lysippos.^[2]

But aside from the superficial contact of trade and warfare, life for the Greek colonists was isolated from the surrounding Illyrian peoples. The Hellenistic culture of the Greek enclaves existed in parallel with the late iron age culture of the wider Illyro-Celtic population. On the mainland the Illyrian ethno-tribal groups were organizing their centers. Illyrian art became influenced by Greek Art, and the Illyrian ethno-tribal groups copied the styles and methods of the Greeks.

Daors tribe of the Neretva Delta

.

Roman urbanization

In the 3rd century BC, the Romans took over the Greek colonial cities and by the 1st century BC had also subdued the Illyrians, and organized the entire coastal territory by setting up urban cities. Following the conquest, the area became a province of the Roman Empire. Numerous rustic villas, and new urban settlements (the most impressive are Verige in Brijuni, Pula and Trogir - formerly Tragurion) demonstrate high level of Roman urbanization. There were at least 30 urban cities across Istria, Liburnia and Dalmatia with Roman citizenship (civitas). The best-preserved Roman grid-pattern street layouts (decumanus/cardo) are those in Epetion (Poreč) and Jader (Zadar). The best preserved Roman monuments are in Pola (Pula); founded in the 1st century dedicated to Julius Caesar, it is full of classical Roman art such as: stonewalls, two city gates, two temples on the Forum, and remains of two theatres, as well as the Arch from the year 30 AD, and the temple of Augustus build in 2-14 AD, and finally the Fluvian Amphitheatre (so called – Arena) from the 2nd century.^[2]

By the 3rd century AD, Salona was the largest and most important city of Dalmatia, with 40,000 inhabitants. Nearby, the Emperor Diocletian, who was born in Salona, built his retirement palace (in approx 300 AD), one of the largest and most important monuments of late antique architecture. On its pathways, cellars, domes, mausoleums, arcades and courtyards can be seen numerous different art influences from the entire Empire. Some of the sculptures are: the head of a boy, girl and a woman from Salona, monumental figure of Minerva from Varaždin, the head of Hercules from Sinj, sculptures of Roman emperors from Nin and Vid near Metković, damaged sculpture of emperor in Zagreb Museum etc.

In the 4th century Salona became the centre of

Poreč

from the 6th century.

The early Middle Ages brought the

• 
  Pula, the arena
• 
  Zadar, Roman column
• 
  Split, Diocletian's Palace

Medieval Croatian art

Early Middle Ages

Early

In Croatian Romanesque sculpture, there was a move away from interlace to figurative reliefs (for example the reliefs in St Domenica’s in Zadar).[8]

Two outstanding works of Romanesque sculpture date from the first half of the 13th century: the wooden entry doors of the

Carved wooden doors from the Romanesque period are relatively rare, as few of them have survived. Buvina’s huge double doors depict the life of Christ in 28 relief panels, each set within a double frame with interwoven vines and scrollwork ornamentation. The scenes are an original design, drawing their inspiration equally from the art of Western miniatures and Eastern Byzantine icons. The carving is precise and clean, leaving each scene easily understood. Also in Split cathedral, the carving on the wooden choir stalls dates to the mid-13th century, with beautiful Romanesque motifs of interwoven vines, figures of saints and a small

Although the main portal of Trogir cathedral was not completed until the 14th century, it is clearly Romanesque in form, but with a new Gothic humanist tendency in the carvings.^[8] The date for the portal is generally given as 1240, which is when Master Radovan carved his name as part of the latin inscription. The portal has a semi-circular tympanum set within a recessed frame with rounded arches in the Romanesque style. The large main figures are sculptures of Adam and Eve, borne on lions supported by plinths. Scenes from the life of Christ from the Annunciation to the Resurrection appear in the arches above the door, with the Nativity occupying the central position of the tympanum, which was unusual for the time. It is a reflection of the spirit of the new Gothic age to replace the dire warning of the Last Judgement above the doorway, with a message of love and hope.^[8]

Down both sides of the portal is a sequence of reliefs representing the months of the year. The figures here are particularly animated, and the scenes are taken from contemporary life. For example, December is shown as the month to butcher the pig and make sausages, followed by January where an old man sits by the fireside cooking, while a young man pours wine from an amphora in a reference to Aquarius the water carrier. The realism of such scenes, and the representation of everyday life of the people is a move to Gothic ideas, with its focus on contemporary humanist issues and real characters.^[8]

Paintings in Croatia from this time include

At the end of the 15th century, the majority of the coastal region was administered by Venice, and churches,

The Franciscan friary, Dubrovnik was built by Mihoje Brajkov of Bar in 1360. Much of the original building was destroyed in the earthquake of 1667, but the cloisters and the carved church portal remain. The lower cloister was built in Romanesque/Gothic style where the capitals are constructed in Romanesque form, but the carvings on them are lively creatures modelled with a Gothic realism.^[15] The portal was sculpted in 1498 in Gothic style by the workshop of the brothers Leonard and Petar Petroviċ. The almost life-sized Pietà in the central lunette is flanked by the figures of St. Jerome (holding a model of the pre-earthquake church) and St. John the Baptist. On top of the lunette stands the figure of the Father Creator. Also in Dubrovnik, the old Rector’s Palace (1435) was built in Gothic style by Onofrio della Cava, who was also responsible for two fountains, which are still in use today.^[13]

The Church of St Mark in Zagreb was radically reconstructed in the second half of the 14th century in Late Gothic style. The main portal contains a series of carved figures of St Mark, Christ, Madonna and the twelve apostles. On top are the statues of Joseph and Mary with the infant Jesus, and below them stand St. Mark and the Lion. The twelve Apostles are placed on both sides of the portal (four wooden statues have replaced original ones which were destroyed). Originally the entire portal was painted in vivid colours. The portal is considered to be the work of sculptors of the Parler family from Prague (end of the 14th century).^[15]

One of the most outstanding works of art from the 14th century in Dalmatia is the large silver chest made for the relics of St Simeon in Zadar (1377-1380), with a portrait of the saint himself on the lid. The chest is covered with relief scenes, of which only one (the Presentation in the Temple) is biblical. The St Simeon reliquary crosses the boundary between the western Gothic style and Byzantine.^[15]

Some outstanding Gothic frescoes are still preserved in churches across Istria. The small cemetery church of St. Nicholas in Rakotule contains some early examples of Venetian origin.

Possibly the best-known series of late Gothic frescoes in Istria is in the Church of St Mary on the Rocks (Sv Marija na Škriljinah) near Beram, dating from 1474. Painted by Vincent of Kastav, the frescoes cover the entire interior of the church in a series of 46 panels. The largest composition (8m long) is The Adoration of the Magi, high on the northern wall. The figures appear three-dimensional, within the illusion of space. Across the back wall, the cycle of life panels conclude with the Danse Macabre (Dance of Death), in which everyone meets their fate - rich or poor, all must die in the end. Scenes of this typically gothic humanist theme were painted in many places across Europe at the time, although not all have survived to this extent. The frescoes of St Marys in Beram remain largely as originally painted, and are amongst the finest works of medieval art in Istria^[17]

A series of paintings of exceptional quality on wood are reliably attributed to

One distinctive feature of paintings by local artists from coastal Croatia is a red background in place of the costlier gold. The red brings an appropriate warmth to the Gothic style paintings, as the gold would also have had a red under-painting. One such example is the Crucifixion in the monastery church at Tkon (island of Pašman).[15] There were two trends for paintings on wood in Croatia during the 14th century: one continued with strict linearity to depict volume, while the other used colour to create a more subtle form. In the painting “Mother of God with Child and Donor” in Zadar, the donor himself is shown. As in other European icons of the time, the donor is small. This is an early representation of secular human figures in a religious painting. Such figures were to increase in size, until the human figures achieved their own importance in the Renaissance portrait of the 15th century.^[15] Zadar was an important centre for Gothic culture (and painting in particular), which emanated and spread to other Dalmatian communities.^[18]

From that time come the two of the best and most finely decorated

The Renaissance period of art and architecture in Croatia can be said to begin in 1441, when Juraj Dalmatinac was contracted to work on

As Juraj Dalmatinac took over responsibility for the building of Šibenik Cathedral, among his first works was in the

In 1468, construction began on the expansion of the Chapel of the Blessed

Inside the protective walls of the

One of the most beautiful Renaissance sculptures in Croatia is perhaps the relief of the Flagellation of Christ by Juraj Dalmatinac on the altar of St Anastasius in

During the 15th and 16th centuries, art flourished in Dubrovnik’s religious institutions, public buildings and its many patrician residences. Although a great deal of the work was commissioned from well-known artists from Italy, much of it was done by locally-born artists. The preferred style of church paintings in Dubrovnik, even into the renaissance period, was still framed in the form of a

• 
  Giorgio Schiavone: Saint Jerome
• 
  Francesco Laurana - Female bust
• 
  Giulio Clovio - Farnese Hours
• 
  Martin Rota - Battle of Lepanto
• 
  Andrea Schiavone - Diana and Actaeon

Baroque and Rococo

Going into the 17th century, there was a shift of artistic activity away from the coastal region towards inland, continental Croatia. As part of the

There were few Croatian artists and architects producing high quality work during the period. Between the slow recovery of the inland population after the war, and the preference in the coastal regions to employ foreign artists and sculptors, it was mainly Italians, Austrian and Slovenes who created and decorated the many Baroque buildings in Croatia.[27] There was a significant increase in the commissioning of large baroque altars in multi-coloured marble with ornate carving. These were mainly imported from Italy, and replaced the existing stone or wood altars.

The ornate Baroque style originated in Rome as a reaction to the counter-reformation in northern Europe, and the Jesuits played a major role in introducing it to Croatia.^[27] Large imposing churches were built in numerous places across the country, with accompanying colleges. The most important sites were in Zagreb, Rijeka, and Dubrovnik.

St. Catherine's Church, Zagreb is one of the most outstanding examples of Baroque Jesuit architecture in northern Croatia, with its elaborate interior decoration.^[28] Completed in 1632, it was renovated in the 18th century following a major fire. The ornate stucco ceiling is by Anton Joseph Quadrio (1721), with frescoes of the heavens by Giulio Quaglio the Younger. Behind the altar is a large trompe l’oeil fresco by Krištof Andrej Jelovšek (1762). The six side chapels have two altars each, the finest by sculptor Francesco Robba.^[27]

The biggest Baroque project was the rebuilding of renaissance Dubrovnik after the catastrophic earthquake of 1667 when almost the entire city was destroyed. Many of its churches and public buildings were constructed from the ground up in the new Baroque style, for example the new cathedral, the Jesuit college with the church of St Ignatius, and the church of St Vlaho on the main square (1715) which shaped the southeastern section of the city. Pietro Passalaqua^[23] united the new baroque areas with his Jesuit Stairway, (reminiscent of the famous Spanish Steps in Rome) which led to the Ivan Gundulić Square below.

During the Baroque numerous churches were built across Croatia. One of the most beautiful is the church of Maria of the Snow in Belec from 1740 with the entire interior filled with lively

The most important baroque painter of Dalmatian origin was Federico Bencovich,^[27] who studied under Carlo Cignani in Bologna. Other Croatian-born artists of the time include painter Bernardo Bobić, who worked mainly in Zagreb and northern Croatia, Matteo Ponzone, who was probably born on the island of Rab,^[22] and worked primarily in Italy, and Tripo Kokolja of Kotor who was active in Dalmatia.^[27]

The 19th century

Two crucial European events shaped the influences on Croatia towards the end of the 18th century. The fall of the

At the same time, the cities of Croatia got an important urban makeover. For size and importance, the urban redesign of Zagreb's centre (largely the work of Milan Lenuzzio, 1860–1880) was revolutionary. Between the longest street,

The building that emphasizes all three visual arts is the former Ministry of Worship and Education, now the Croatian Institute of History in Zagreb (