Crocodile
Crocodiles | |
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Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) | |
Saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Reptilia |
Clade: | Archosauromorpha |
Clade: | Archosauriformes |
Order: | Crocodilia |
Superfamily: | Crocodyloidea |
Family: | Crocodylidae Cuvier, 1807 |
Type genus | |
Laurenti , 1768
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Subfamilies | |
Crocodiles (
Although they appear similar, crocodiles, alligators and the gharial belong to separate
Crocodile
Etymology
The word crocodile comes from the Ancient Greek krokódilos (κροκόδιλος) meaning 'lizard', used in the phrase ho krokódilos tou potamoú, "the lizard of the (Nile) river". There are several variant Greek forms of the word attested, including the later form krokódeilos (κροκόδειλος)[4] found cited in many English reference works.[5] In the Koine Greek of Roman times, krokodilos and krokodeilos would have been pronounced identically, and either or both may be the source of the Latinized form crocodīlus used by the ancient Romans. It has been suggested, but it is not certain that the word crocodilos or crocodeilos is a compound of krokè ('pebbles'), and drilos/dreilos ('worm'), although drilos is only attested as a colloquial term for 'penis'.[5] It is ascribed to Herodotus, and supposedly describes the basking habits of the Egyptian crocodile.[6]
The form crocodrillus is attested in Medieval Latin.[5] It is not clear whether this is a medieval corruption or derives from alternative Greco-Latin forms (late Greek corcodrillos and corcodrillion are attested). A (further) corrupted form cocodrille is found in Old French and was borrowed into Middle English as cocodril(le). The Modern English form crocodile was adapted directly from the Classical Latin crocodīlus in the 16th century, replacing the earlier form. The use of -y- in the scientific name Crocodylus (and forms derived from it) is a corruption introduced by Laurenti (1768).
Species
A total of 18
Species name | Image | Distribution | Description/Comments |
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American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) | Throughout the Caribbean islands and South Florida .
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A larger sized species, with a greyish colour and a prominent V-shaped snout. Prefers Lago Enriquillo, in the Dominican Republic, which has one of the largest populations of this species.[7] Diet consists mostly of aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates. Classified as Vulnerable , but certain local populations under greater threat.
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Hall's New Guinea crocodile (Crocodylus halli) | The island of New Guinea, south of the New Guinea Highlands | A smaller species that closely resembles and was long classified under the New Guinea crocodile, which it is now considered to be genetically distinct from. It lives south of the mountain barrier that divides the two species' ranges. It can be physically distinguished from the New Guinea crocodile by its shorter maxilla and enlarged postcranial elements. Cranial elements can still widely vary within the species, with populations from Lake Murray having much wider heads than those from the Aramia River.[8] | |
Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) | Colombia and Venezuela | This is a large species with a relatively elongated snout and a pale tan coloration with scattered dark brown markings. Lives primarily in the Orinoco Basin. Despite having a rather narrow snout, preys on a wide variety of vertebrates, including large mammals. It is a Critically Endangered species. | |
Freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus johnstoni) | Northern Australia | A smaller species with a narrow and elongated snout. It has light brown coloration with darker bands on body and tail. Lives in rivers with considerable distance from the sea, to avoid confrontations with saltwater crocodiles. Feeds mostly on fish and other small vertebrates. | |
Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) | Endemic to the Philippines
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This is a relatively small species with a rather broader snout. It has heavy dorsal armour and a golden-brown colour that darkens as the animal matures. Prefers freshwater habitats and feeds on a variety of small to medium sized vertebrates. This species is Critically Endangered and the most severely threatened species of crocodile.[9]
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Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii) | Atlantic regions of Mexico, Belize and Guatemala | A small to medium sized crocodile with a rather broad snout. It has a dark greyish-brown colour and is found in mostly various Least Concern .
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Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) | Sub-saharan Africa
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A large and aggressive species with a broad snout, especially in older animals. It has a dark bronze coloration and darkens as the animal matures. Lives in a variety of freshwater habitats but is also found in brackish water. It is an Least Concern .
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New Guinea crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae) | The island of New Guinea, north of the New Guinea Highlands | A smaller species of crocodile with a grey-brown colour and dark brown to black markings on the tail. The young have a narrower V-shaped snout that becomes wider as the animal matures. Prefers freshwater habitats, even though is tolerant to salt water, in order to avoid competition and predation by the saltwater crocodile. This species feeds on small to mid-sized vertebrates.
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Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) | The Indian subcontinent and surrounding countries | This is a modest sized crocodile with a very broad snout and an alligator-like appearance. It has dark-grey to brown coloration. Enlarged scutes around the neck make it a heavily armoured species. Prefers slow moving coastal swamps but avoids areas populated by saltwater crocodiles.[11] Feeds on a wide array of vertebrates.
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Saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) | Throughout Southeast Asia, Northern Australia and surrounding waters | The largest living reptile and most aggressive of all crocodiles. It is a big-headed species and has a relatively broad snout, especially when older. The coloration is pale yellow with black stripes when young but dark greenish-drab coloured as adults. Lives in Least Concern with several populations under greater risk.[12]
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Borneo crocodile (Crocodylus raninus) | Island of Borneo in Southeast Asia | A freshwater species of crocodile that has been considered a synonym of the saltwater crocodile. | |
Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer) | Found only in the Isle of Youth of Cuba
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It is a small but extremely aggressive species of crocodile that prefers swamps.[13] The coloration is vibrant even as adults and the scales have a "pebbled" appearance. It is a relatively terrestrial species with agile locomotion on land, and sometimes displays terrestrial hunting. The snout is broad with a thick upper-jaw and large teeth. The unique characteristics and fossil record indicates a rather specialized diet in the past, preying on megafauna such as the giant sloth. This species sometimes displays pack-hunting behaviour, which might have been the key to hunting large species in the past, despite its small size.[14] Today most prey are small to medium sized vertebrates. It is Critically Endangered, and the remaining wild population is under threat of hybridization.[15]
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Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis) | Indochina
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A fairly small crocodile that prefers freshwater habitats. It has a relatively broad snout and olive-green to dark green coloration. It feeds on a variety of small to mid-sized vertebrates. Listed as Critically Endangered, but might be already extinct in the wild; status is unknown.[16]
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West African crocodile (Crocodylus suchus) | Western and Central Africa
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Recent studies revealed that this is distinct species from the larger Nile crocodile.[17][18] It has a slightly narrower snout and is much smaller compared to its larger cousin. | |
Osborn's dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus osborni)
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Western Africa
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It is the smallest of all living crocodiles. It is a heavily armoured species with uniform black coloration in adults, while juveniles have a lighter brown banding. Lives in the tropical forests of Western Africa. Feeds on small vertebrates and large aquatic invertebrates. It is a fairly terrestrial species and exhibits terrestrial hunting, especially at night. | |
Dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis) | Western Africa
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It is the smallest of all living crocodiles. It belongs to its own monotypic genus; however, new studies indicate there might be two or even three distinct species.[19] It is a heavily armoured species with uniform black coloration in adults, while juveniles have a lighter brown banding. Lives in the tropical forests of Western Africa. Feeds on small vertebrates and large aquatic invertebrates. It is a fairly terrestrial species and exhibits terrestrial hunting, especially at night. This species is classified as Vulnerable .
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West African slender-snouted crocodile (Mecistops cataphractus) | Western Africa
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A medium sized species with a narrow and elongated snout. Lives in Critically Endangered species.
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Central African slender-snouted crocodile (Mecistops leptorhynchus) | Central Africa | A medium sized species found in watery areas in dense rainforest. Feeds largely on fish. Insufficient conservation data, but was classified as Critically Endangered when lumped with M. cataphractus, although M. leptorhynchus is doing better in its home range.
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Characteristics
A crocodile's physical traits allow it to be a successful
Like other
Size
Size greatly varies among species, from the
The brain volume of two adult crocodiles was 5.6 cm3 for a spectacled caiman and 8.5 cm3 for a larger Nile crocodile.[26]
The largest crocodile ever held in captivity is a saltwater–Siamese hybrid named Yai (Thai: ใหญ่, meaning big; born 10 June 1972) at the Samutprakarn Crocodile Farm and Zoo, Thailand. This animal measures 6 m (20 ft) in length and weighs 1,200 kg (2,600 lb).[27]
The longest crocodile captured alive was Lolong, a saltwater crocodile which was measured at 6.17 m (20.2 ft) and weighed at 1,075 kg (2,370 lb) by a National Geographic team in Agusan del Sur Province, Philippines.[28][29][30]
Teeth
Crocodiles are polyphyodonts; they are able to replace each of their 80 teeth up to 50 times in their 35- to 75-year lifespan.[31][32] Next to each full-grown tooth, there is a small replacement tooth and an odontogenic stem cell in the dental lamina in standby that can be activated if required.[33]
Biology and behaviour
Crocodilians are more closely related to birds and dinosaurs than to most animals classified as reptiles, the three families being included in the group
Senses
Crocodiles have acute senses, an evolutionary advantage that makes them successful predators. The eyes, ears and nostrils are located on top of the head, allowing the crocodile to lie low in the water, almost totally submerged and hidden from prey.
Vision
Crocodiles have very good night vision, and are mostly
Olfaction
Crocodilian
Hearing
Crocodiles can hear well; their tympanic membranes are concealed by flat flaps that may be raised or lowered by muscles.[20]
Touch
The touch sensors, concentrated in crocodile skin, can be thicker than those in human fingerprints.[44] Crocodiles can feel the touch on their skin.[45]
Cranial: The upper and lower jaws are covered with sensory pits, visible as small, black speckles on the skin, the crocodilian version of the lateral line organs seen in fish and many amphibians, though arising from a completely different origin. These pigmented nodules encase bundles of nerve fibers innervated beneath by branches of the trigeminal nerve. They respond to the slightest disturbance in surface water, detecting vibrations and small pressure changes as small as a single drop.[46] This makes it possible for crocodiles to detect prey, danger and intruders, even in total darkness. These sense organs are known as domed pressure receptors (DPRs).[47]
Post-Cranial: While alligators and caimans have DPRs only on their jaws, crocodiles have similar organs on almost every scale on their bodies. The function of the DPRs on the jaws is clear; to catch prey, but it is still not clear what the function is of the organs on the rest of the body. The receptors flatten when exposed to increased osmotic pressure, such as that experienced when swimming in sea water
Hunting and diet
Crocodiles are
Crocodiles have the most acidic stomach of any vertebrate. They can easily digest bones, hooves and horns. The
Bite
Since they feed by grabbing and holding onto their prey, they have
A 5.2 m (17 ft) long saltwater crocodile has been confirmed as having the strongest
Locomotion
Crocodiles can move quickly over short distances, even out of water. The
Crocodiles may possess a
Longevity
Measuring crocodile age is unreliable, although several techniques are used to derive a reasonable guess. The most common method is to measure lamellar growth rings in bones and teeth—each ring corresponds to a change in growth rate which typically occurs once a year between dry and wet seasons.[68] Bearing these inaccuracies in mind, it can be safely said that all crocodile species have an average lifespan of at least 30–40 years, and in the case of larger species an average of 60–70 years. The oldest crocodiles appear to be the largest species. C. porosus is estimated to live around 70 years on average, with limited evidence of some individuals exceeding 100 years.[69]
In captivity, some individuals are claimed to have lived for over a century. A male crocodile lived to an estimated age of 110–115 years in a Russian zoo in Yekaterinburg.[70] Named Kolya, he joined the zoo around 1913 to 1915, fully grown, after touring in an animal show, and lived until 1995.[70] A male freshwater crocodile lived to an estimated age of 120–140 years at the Australia Zoo.[71] Known affectionately as "Mr. Freshie", he was rescued around 1970 by Bob Irwin and Steve Irwin, after being shot twice by hunters and losing an eye as a result, and lived until 2010.[71] Crocworld Conservation Centre, in Scottburgh, South Africa, claims to have a male Nile crocodile that was born in 1900. Named Henry, the crocodile is said to have lived in Botswana along the Okavango River, according to centre director Martin Rodrigues.[72][73]
Social behaviour and vocalization
Crocodiles are the most social of reptiles. Even though they do not form social groups, many species congregate in certain sections of
Crocodiles are also the most vocal of all reptiles, producing a wide variety of sounds during various situations and conditions, depending on species, age, size and sex. Depending on the context, some species can communicate over 20 different messages through
Specific vocalisations include —
- Chirp: When about to hatch, the young make a "peeping" noise, which encourages the female to excavate the nest. The female then gathers the hatchlings in her mouth and transports them to the water, where they remain in a group for several months, protected by the female[76]
- Distress call: A high-pitched call used mostly by younger animals to alert other crocodiles to imminent danger or an animal being attacked.
- Threat call: A hissing sound that has also been described as a coughing noise.
- Hatching call: Emitted by a female when breeding to alert other crocodiles that she has laid eggs in her nest.
- Bellowing: Male crocodiles are especially vociferous. Bellowing choruses occur most often in the spring when breeding groups congregate, but can occur at any time of year. To bellow, males noticeably inflate as they raise the tail and head out of water, slowly waving the tail back and forth. They then puff out the throat and with a closed mouth, begin to vibrate air. Just before bellowing, males project an infrasonic signal at about 10 Hz through the water, which vibrates the ground and nearby objects. These low-frequency vibrations travel great distances through both air and water to advertise the male's presence and are so powerful they result in the water's appearing to "dance".[77]
Reproduction
Crocodiles lay eggs, which are laid in either holes or mound nests, depending on species. A hole nest is usually excavated in sand and a mound nest is usually constructed out of vegetation. Nesting periods range from a few weeks up to six months. Courtship takes place in a series of behavioural interactions that include a variety of snout rubbing and submissive display that can take a long time. Mating always takes place in water, where the pair can be observed mating several times. Females can build or dig several trial nests which appear incomplete and abandoned later. Egg-laying usually takes place at night and about 30–40 minutes.[78] Females are highly protective of their nests and young. The eggs are hard shelled, but translucent at the time of egg-laying. Depending on the species of crocodile, 7 to 95 eggs are laid. Crocodile embryos do not have sex chromosomes, and unlike humans, sex is not determined genetically. Sex is determined by temperature, where at 30 °C (86 °F) or less most hatchlings are females and at 31 °C (88 °F), offspring are of both sexes. A temperature of 32 to 33 °C (90 to 91 °F) gives mostly males whereas above 33 °C (91 °F) in some species continues to give males, but in other species resulting in females, which are sometimes called high-temperature females.[79] Temperature also affects growth and survival rate of the young, which may explain the sexual dimorphism in crocodiles. The average incubation period is around 80 days, and also is dependent on temperature and species that usually ranges from 65 to 95 days. The eggshell structure is very conservative through evolution but there are enough changes to tell different species apart by their eggshell microstructure.[80] Scutes may play a role in calcium storage for eggshell formation.[23]
At the time of hatching, the young start calling within the eggs. They have an
Cognition
Crocodiles possess some advanced cognitive abilities. Large numbers of crocodiles swim in circles to trap fish and take turns snatching them. In hunting larger prey, crocodiles swarm in, with one holding the prey down as the others rip it apart.
According to a 2015 study, crocodiles engage in all three main types of play behaviour recorded in animals: locomotor play, play with objects and social play. Play with objects is reported most often, but locomotor play such as repeatedly sliding down slopes, and social play such as riding on the backs of other crocodiles is also reported. This behaviour was exhibited with conspecifics and mammals and is apparently not uncommon, though has been difficult to observe and interpret in the past due to obvious dangers of interacting with large carnivores.[89]
Taxonomy and phylogeny
Crocodylidae is
- Subfamily Crocodylinae
- Genus Crocodylus
- Crocodylus acutus, American crocodile
- Hall's New Guinea crocodile found South of the New Guinea Highlands[93]
- Crocodylus intermedius, Orinoco crocodile
- Crocodylus johnsoni, freshwater crocodile, or Johnstone's crocodile
- Crocodylus mindorensis, Philippine crocodile
- Crocodylus moreletii, Morelet's crocodileor Mexican crocodile
- Crocodylus niloticus, Nile crocodileor African crocodile (the subspecies found in Madagascar is sometimes called the black crocodile)
- Crocodylus novaeguineae, New Guinea crocodile found North of the New Guinea Highlands
- mugger, marsh or Indian crocodile
- Crocodylus porosus, saltwater crocodileor estuarine crocodile
- Borneo crocodile, is currently considered to be a synonym of Crocodylus porosus; whether or not it is a distinct species remains unclear.[94]
- Crocodylus rhombifer, Cuban crocodile
- Crocodylus siamensis, Siamese crocodile(may be extinct in the wild)
- Crocodylus suchus, West African crocodile, desert or sacred crocodile
- Crocodylus anthropophagus†
- Crocodylus checchiai†
- Crocodylus falconensis†
- Crocodylus palaeindicus†
- Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni†
- Genus Voay†
- Voay robustus† (formerly Crocodylus robustus)
- Genus Crocodylus
- Subfamily Osteolaeminae
- Genus Osteolaemus
- Osteolaemus tetraspis, dwarf crocodile(There has been controversy as to whether or not this is actually two species; recent (2010) DNA analysis indicate three distinct species: O. tetraspis, O. osborni and a third, currently unnamed.)
- Genus Mecistops
- Mecistops cataphractus West African slender-snouted crocodile
- Mecistops leptorhynchus Central African slender-snouted crocodile
- Genus Brochuchus†
- Brochuchus pigotti† (formerly Crocodylus pigotti)
- Brochuchus parvidens†
- Genus Euthecodon†
- Euthecodon nitriae†
- Euthecodon brumpti†
- Euthecodon arambourgi†
- Genus Rimasuchus†
- Rimasuchus lloydi† (formerly Crocodylus lloydi)
- Genus Osteolaemus
Phylogeny
Recent molecular studies using
Below is a
Crocodilia |
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Below is a more detailed cladogram of Crocodylidae, based on a 2021 study using paleogenomics that extracted DNA from the extinct Voay.[91]
Crocodylidae |
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(crown group) |
Alternatively, some
Crocodylidae |
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Paleoafrican Crocodylus Neotropical Crocodylus Indo-Pacific Crocodylus | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Relationship with humans
Danger to humans
The larger species of crocodiles are very dangerous to humans, mainly because of their ability to strike before the person can react.[100] The saltwater crocodile and Nile crocodile are the most dangerous, killing hundreds of people each year in parts of Southeast Asia and Africa. The mugger crocodile and American crocodile are also dangerous to humans.[citation needed]
Crocodile products
Crocodiles are protected in many parts of the world, but are also farmed commercially. Their hides are tanned and used to make leather goods such as shoes and handbags; crocodile meat is also considered a delicacy.[101] The most commonly farmed species are the saltwater and Nile crocodiles, while a hybrid of the saltwater and the rare Siamese crocodile is also bred in Asian farms. Farming has resulted in an increase in the saltwater crocodile population in Australia, as eggs are usually harvested from the wild, so landowners have an incentive to conserve their habitat. Crocodile leather can be made into goods such as wallets, briefcases, purses, handbags, belts, hats, and shoes. Crocodile oil has been used for various purposes.[102] Crocodiles were eaten by Vietnamese while they were taboo and off limits for Chinese. Vietnamese women who married Chinese men adopted the Chinese taboo.[103]
Crocodile meat is consumed in some countries, such as Australia, Ethiopia, Thailand, South Africa, China, and Cuba (in pickled form). It is also occasionally eaten as an "exotic" delicacy in the western world.[104] Cuts of meat include backstrap and tail fillet.[citation needed]
Due to high demand for crocodile products, TRAFFIC states that 1,418,487 Nile Crocodile skins were exported from Africa between 2006 and 2015.[105]
Crocodile hunting and conservation
In religion and mythology
Crocodiles have appeared in various forms in religions across the world.
Crocodiles appear in different forms in
In Latin America,
The name of
In language and as symbols
The term "
In the UK, a row of
Fashion logos
The French clothing company Lacoste features a crocodile in its logo. The American shoe company Crocs also uses this imagery in its logo.[citation needed]
See also
- Alligator meat
- The Crocodile Hunter
- Crocodilian armor
- Game (hunting)
- Sewer alligator
- Sobek – an ancient Egyptian deity associated with the Nile crocodile
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- ^ "Crocodilian Biology Database - FAQ - How long do crocodiles live for?". Crocodilian.com. Archived from the original on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
- ^ a b "Crocodile at Russian zoo dies; on display since czars". The News–Journal. Vol. 70, no. 47. Daytona Beach, Florida: News–Journal Corporation. Associated Press. 16 February 1995.
- ^ a b Campbell, Kieran (24 March 2010). "Freshie the croc dies at age 140". Sunshine Coast Daily.
- ^ "Johannesburg: World's oldest crocodile turns 114". IBN Live. 16 December 2014. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
- ^ "Celebran cumpleaños del cocodrilo más longevo del mundo". El Nuevo Día. 16 December 2014. Archived from the original on 21 December 2014. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
- ^ "Crocodilian Species List". Crocodilian.com. Archived from the original on 25 October 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
- ^ "Crocodilian Communication". Crocodilian.com. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
- ^ Arkive. "Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus)". Archived from the original on 23 January 2009. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
- ^ Hays, J. (2008). "Crocodiles: Their history, characteristics and behavior". Archived from the original on 29 June 2013. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
- ^ a b K. Richardson; G. Webb; C. Manolis (2000). Crocodiles: Inside and Out.
- ^ G. Webb; C. Manolis (1989). Crocodiles of Australia.
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- ^ Darren Naish. "Do crocodilians (sometimes) feed their young?". Science Blogs. 8 November 2008
- ^ "10 Delightful Baby Animals that Grow up to Be Fatal Predators". Odd Stuff. 3 February 2012. 3 February 2012
- ^ Jasey Kelly. "THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALLIGATORS AND CROCODILES". Demand Media.
- ^ a b Amina Khan (6 December 2013). "Scary smart! Clever crocodiles, alligators use sticks to lure prey". Los Angeles Times. 6 December 2013
- ^ Jason G. Goldman. "Crocodiles and their ilk may be smarter than they look". The Washington Post. 9 December 2013
- ^ a b c "Scary smart! Clever crocodiles, alligators use sticks to lure prey". Phys Org. 13 October 2014
- ^ "Crocodiles are cleverer than previously thought: Some crocodiles use lures to hunt their prey". ScienceDaily. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 8 December 2013.
- ^ a b "The Crocodile Files". One World Magazine. Archived from the original on 30 September 2000.
- ^ "Crocodiles just wanna have fun, too". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
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- ^ S2CID 237962496.
- ^ "Crocodilian Attacks". IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group (iucncsg.org). Retrieved 3 February 2013.
- ^ Lyman, Rick (30 November 1998). "Anahuac Journal; Alligator Farmer Feeds Demand for All the Parts". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 November 2013.
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- London Evening Standard. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
- ^ "Reptiles and amphibians - Species we work with at TRAFFIC". www.traffic.org. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
- ^ a b Ryall, Jenni (29 October 2021). "Incredible video shows how crocodiles were hunted in Australia in 1949" (text + video, 10m.). Mashable. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
- ^ a b "Crocodile hunting". Queensland Historical Atlas. 21 August 2013. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
- ^ Vidler, Adam (29 March 2021). "With more big crocs than ever, should hunting be allowed?". 9News. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
- ^ Catherine C. Harris. "Egypt: The Crocodile God, Sobek". Tour Egypt.
- ^ Fidelis Mac-Leva. "Nigeria: How Giant Crocodiles Guided Jukun to Kwararafa". All Africa. 24 June 2009
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- ^ Marty Crump, Livros no Google Play Eye of Newt and Toe of Frog, Adder's Fork and Lizard's Leg: The Lore and Mythology of Amphibians and Reptiles, University of Chicago Press, 16 November 2015
- ^ An Athenæum article makes a claim of a specific crocodile deity named textually as "Jacaret", but less biased sources do not mention this theonym in any capacity.
- ^ "Holy Rivers, Lakes, and Oceans". Heart of Hinduism. ISKCON Educational Services. 2004. Archived from the original on 14 October 2014. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
Most rivers are considered female and are personified as goddesses. Ganga, who features in the Mahabharata, is usually shown riding on a crocodile (see right).
- ^ Kumar, Nitin (August 2003). "Ganga The River Goddess - Tales in Art and Mythology".
The second distinguishing aspect of Ganga's iconography is her animal mount, which is often shown serving as a pedestal for her. This is the makara, a hybrid creature having the body of a crocodile and the tail of a fish. The makara in Hindu thought corresponds to the star sign of Capricorn in western astrology. The crocodile is a unique animal in that it can live on both land and sea. It thus denotes the wisdom of both the earth and waters.
- ^ "Hindu gods and their holy mounts". Sri.Venkateswara Zoological Park. Archived from the original on 23 June 2014.
The river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, were appropriately mounted on a tortoise and a crocodile respectively.
- ^ "The Crocodile is God in Goa" (PDF). Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter. 14 (1): 8. January–March 1995. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^ Taba, David (2011). Iranian Character of The Armenian Language. p. 9.
- ^ "Explainer Nihang Sikh sect in spotlight again after Singhu killing". The Federal. 15 October 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
- ^ "The Nihang". Sikh Heritage. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
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- ^ "Welcome to Surabaya City, East Java". Surabaya Tourism, EastJava.com. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
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- ^ Britton, Adam (n.d.). Do crocodiles cry 'crocodile tears'? Crocodilian Biology Database. Retrieved 13 March 2006 from the Crocodile Specialist Group, Crocodile Species List, FAQ.
- ^ Martin H. Manser, Turton and Nigel D. Turton Advanced Learner's Dictionary, p. 164, at Google Books
- ^ Angela Brazil The Nicest Girl in the School, p. 50, at Google Books
Further reading
- Iskandar, DT (2000). Turtles and Crocodiles of Insular Southeast Asia and New Guinea. ITB, Bandung.
- Crocodilian Biology Database, FAQ. FLMNH.ufl.edu, "How long do crocodiles live for?" [sic] Adam Britton.
- Crocodilian Biology Database, FAQ. FLMNH.ufl.edu, "How fast can a crocodile run?" Adam Britton.
External links
- Media related to Crocodile at Wikimedia Commons
- Crocodilian Online Archived 8 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- Crocodilian Biology Database
- Crocodile Attacks in Australia
- BBC news finds powerful agent in crocodile blood
- World's most expensive handbag sells in Hong Kong for over US$377,000 – a Hermès white crocodile (31 May 2017), South China Morning Post
- 292 New Guinea crocodiles massacred in West Papua, Indonesia