Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom
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The Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, originally the Crown Jewels of England, are a collection of royal ceremonial objects kept in the
Symbols of over 800 years of monarchy,[6] the coronation regalia are the only working set in Europe and the collection is the most historically complete of any regalia in the world.[7] Objects used to invest and crown British monarchs variously denote their role as head of state of the United Kingdom and other countries of the Commonwealth, Supreme Governor of the Church of England, and head of the British armed forces. They feature heraldic devices and national emblems of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.
Use of regalia by monarchs in England can be traced back to when the country was converted to Christianity in the
The regalia contain 23,578 gemstones, among them
At a coronation, the monarch is anointed using holy oil poured from an ampulla into the spoon, invested with robes and ornaments, and crowned with St Edward's Crown. Afterwards, it is exchanged for the lighter Imperial State Crown, which is also usually worn at State Openings of Parliament. Wives of kings, known as queens consort, are invested with a plainer set of regalia.[c] Also regarded as crown jewels are state swords, trumpets, ceremonial maces, church plate, historical regalia, banqueting plate, and royal christening fonts. They are part of the Royal Collection and belong to the institution of monarchy, passing from one sovereign to the next. In the Jewel House they are seen by 2.5 million visitors every year.
History
Prehistory and Romans
The earliest known use of a crown in Britain was discovered by archaeologists in 1988 in
Anglo-Saxons
By the early 5th century, the Romans had withdrawn from Britain, and the Angles and the Saxons settled. A heptarchy of new kingdoms began to emerge. One method used by regional kings to solidify their authority was the use of ceremony and insignia.[12] The tomb of an unknown king – evidence suggests Rædwald of East Anglia (r. circa 599 – 624) – at Sutton Hoo illustrates the regalia of a pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon monarch.[13] Inside the early 7th-century tomb, discovered in 1939, was found the ornate Sutton Hoo helmet, consisting of an iron cap, a neck guard, and a face mask decorated with copper alloy images of animals and warriors set with garnets.[14] He was also buried with a decorated sword; a ceremonial shield; and a heavy whetstone sceptre,[g] on top of which is an iron ring surmounted by the figure of a stag.[13]
In 597 CE, a
Edward the Confessor
Edward the Confessor (r. 1042–1066) is depicted on a throne and wearing a crown while holding a sceptre in the first scene of the Bayeux Tapestry.[21] Edward died without an heir, and William the Conqueror emerged as the first Norman king of England following his victory over the English at the Battle of Hastings. Wearing a crown became an important part of William I's efforts to assert authority over his new territory and subjects.[22] At his death in 1087, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reported: "[William] kept great state … He wore his crown three times a year as often as he was in England … He was so stern and relentless … we must not forget the good order he kept in the land".[23] Those crown-wearings were held on the religious festivals of Easter, Whitsun, and Christmas.[24]
In 1161, Edward the Confessor was made a saint, and objects connected with his reign became holy relics. The monks at his burial place,
An object referred to as "St Edward's Crown" is first recorded as having been used for the coronation of Henry III (r. 1216–1272) and appears to be the same crown worn by Edward. Being crowned and invested with regalia owned by a previous monarch who was also a saint reinforced the king's legitimacy.[29] It was also wrongly thought to have originally been owned by Alfred the Great (r. 871–899) because an inscription on the lid of its box, translated from Latin, read: "This is the chief crown of the two, with which were crowned Kings Alfred, Edward and others".[30] The crown would be used in many subsequent coronations until its eventual destruction 400 years later. Few descriptions survive, although one 17th-century historian noted that it was "ancient Work with Flowers, adorn'd with Stones of somewhat a plain setting",[31] and an inventory described it as "gold wire-work set with slight stones and two little bells", weighing 2.25 kilograms (79.5 oz).[32] It had arches and may have been decorated with filigree and cloisonné enamels.[33] Also in the Royal Collection in this period was an item called a state crown, which together with other crowns, rings, and swords, constituted the monarch's state regalia that were mainly kept at royal palaces.[34]
Late medieval period
The handing over of crowns symbolised the transfer of power between rulers. Following the
Monarchs often pledged items of state regalia as collateral for loans.
Having fallen out of use in England in the 13th century,
Tudors and early Stuarts
The traditions established in the medieval period continued later. By the mid 15th century, a crown was formally worn on six religious feasts every year: Christmas,
An emerging item of regalia was the orb, described in
The concept of hereditary state regalia was enshrined in English law in 1606 when James I (r. 1603–1625), the first Stuart king to rule England, decreed a list of "Roiall and Princely ornaments and Jewells to be indyvidually and inseparably for ever hereafter annexed to the Kingdome of this Realme".[53][i] After James died, his son, Charles I (r. 1625–1649) ascended the throne. Desperate for money, one of his first acts was to load 41 masterpieces from the Jewel House onto a ship bound for Amsterdam – the hub of Europe's jewel trade. This hoard of unique treasures, including the Mirror of Great Britain brooch, a 14th-century pendant called the Three Brothers, a 4.7-kilogram (10 lb) gold salt cellar known as the Morris Dance, and much fine Elizabethan plate, was expected to swell the king's coffers by £300,000, but fetched only £70,000.[57]
Charles's many conflicts with
Interregnum
After six years of war, Charles was defeated and executed, and less than a week later, the
Two
Restoration to present
The
In 1669, the Jewels went on public display for the first time in the
Since the Restoration, there have been many additions and alterations to the regalia.
As enemy planes targeted London during the Second World War, the Crown Jewels were secretly moved to Windsor Castle.[84] The most valuable gemstones were taken out of their settings by James Mann, Master of the Armouries, and Sir Owen Morshead, the Royal Librarian. They were wrapped in cotton wool, placed in a tall glass preserving-jar, which was then sealed in a biscuit tin, and hidden in the castle's basement. Also placed in the jar was a note from the King, stating that he had personally directed that the gemstones be removed from their settings. As the Crown Jewels were bulky and thus difficult to transport without a vehicle, the idea was that if the Nazis invaded, the historic precious stones could easily be carried on someone's person without drawing suspicion and if necessary buried or sunk.[85]
After the war, the Jewels were kept in a vault at the Bank of England for two years while the Jewel House was repaired; the Tower had been struck by a bomb.[86] In May 2023,[87] St Edward's Crown was placed on the head of Charles III (r. 2022–present) in the only ceremony of its kind in Europe.[88][o] Other European monarchies have abandoned coronations in favour of secular ceremonies.[90] The Crown Jewels consist of approximately 140 objects,[2] which are permanently set with 23,578 precious and semi-precious stones and are seen by around 2.5 million visitors every year.[91]
Crowns
Crowns are the main symbols of royal authority.
St Edward's Crown
The centrepiece of the coronation regalia is named after
Imperial State Crown
A much lighter crown is worn by the monarch when leaving Westminster Abbey, and at the annual State Opening of Parliament.
Consort crowns
After the Restoration, wives of kings – queens consort – traditionally wore the State Crown of Mary of Modena, who first wore it at her coronation in 1685. Originally set with 561 hired diamonds and 129 pearls, it was re-set with crystals and cultured pearls for display in the Jewel House along with a matching diadem that consorts wore in procession to the Abbey. The diadem once held 177 diamonds, 1 ruby, 1 sapphire, and 1 emerald.[110] By the 19th century, that crown was judged to be too theatrical and in a poor state of repair, so in 1831 the Crown of Queen Adelaide was made for Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen using gemstones from her private jewellery.[111]
Thus began a tradition of each queen consort having a custom-made crown.[112] In 1902 the Crown of Queen Alexandra, a European-style crown – flatter and with eight half-arches instead of the typical four – was made for Alexandra of Denmark to wear at her coronation. Set with over 3,000 diamonds, it was the first consort crown to include the Koh-i-Noor diamond presented to Queen Victoria in 1850 following the British conquest of the Punjab. Originally 191 carats (38 g) and set in an armlet, it was cut down to an oval brilliant weighing 105 carats (21 g), which Victoria mounted in a brooch and circlet.[113] The second was the Crown of Queen Mary; also unusual for a British crown owing to its eight half-arches, it was made in 1911 for Mary of Teck. Mary purchased the Art Deco-inspired crown with her own money hoping it would become an heirloom used by future queens consort.[114] Altogether, it is adorned with 2,200 diamonds, and once contained the 94.4-carat (19 g) Cullinan III and 63.4-carat (13 g) Cullinan IV diamonds. Its arches were made detachable in 1914 allowing it to be worn as an open crown or circlet.[115]
After George V's death, Mary continued wearing the crown (without its arches) as a
Prince of Wales coronets
A relatively modest gold
Non-coronation crowns
In the Jewel House there are two crowns that were never intended to be worn at a coronation.
Processional objects
A coronation begins with the procession into Westminster Abbey.[134]
Swords
The swords of state reflect a monarch's role as
The two-handed Sword of State, made in 1678, symbolises the monarch's authority and is also carried before the monarch at State Openings of Parliament.[137] Its wooden sheath, made in 1689, is bound in crimson velvet decorated with silver-gilt emblems of England, Scotland and Ireland, fleurs-de-lis, and portcullises.[138] The lion of England and unicorn of Scotland form the cross-piece to the sword's handle. The sword weighs 3.6 kg (8 lb) and is 1.2 m (4 ft) long. During a coronation it must be held for much of the service pointing upwards without touching the body by the Lord President of the Privy Council.[139]
Before the investiture, the unwieldy Sword of State is exchanged for the lighter Sword of Offering, which is described as "the one true coronation sword". Commissioned by George IV for his extravagant
The 17th-century Irish Sword of State was held by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (a viceroy) prior to Ireland's independence from the UK in 1922 and has been displayed in the Jewel House since 1959. The handle takes the form of a lion and a unicorn and is decorated with a celtic harp. Each new viceroy was invested with the sword at Dublin Castle where it usually sat across the arms of a throne, representing the king or queen in their absence. It was borne in procession in front of monarchs during their official visits to Dublin. In June 1921 the sword was present at the official opening of the Parliament of Northern Ireland by George V. The sword was displayed at Dublin Castle in 2018 as part of the 'Making Majesty' exhibition – the first time it had been to Ireland in 95 years.[143]
St Edward's Staff
St Edward's Staff is a 1.4-metre-long (4.6 ft) ceremonial gold walking stick made for Charles II in 1661. It has a plain monde and cross at the top and a steel pike at the bottom.[144] This object is almost certainly a copy of the long rod mentioned in the list of royal plate and jewels destroyed in 1649,[145] although the pre-Interregnum version was gold and silver and topped by a dove.[146] The staff's intended role in the coronation has been forgotten since medieval times, and so it is carried into the Abbey by a peer as a holy relic and laid on the altar, where it remains throughout the ceremony.[147]
Trumpets
The Crown Jewels include 16 silver trumpets dating from between 1780 and 1848.[93] Nine are draped with red silk damask banners embroidered with coats of arms in gold, originally made for Queen Victoria's coronation in 1838. They have not been used since the Corps of State Trumpeters was disbanded as a cost-cutting measure in the 19th century.[148] The trumpeters' main job was to sound a fanfare at key points in the coronation, and they also played at the banquet afterwards in Westminster Hall.[149] Today, the Band of the Household Cavalry and the Central Band of the Royal Air Force play their own trumpets at state occasions.[150][151]
Maces
Beginning as lethal weapons of medieval knights, maces evolved into ceremonial objects carried by sergeants-at-arms that represent a monarch's authority.[1] The House of Commons can only operate lawfully when the royal mace – dating from Charles II's reign – is present at the table. Two other maces dating from the reigns of Charles II and William III are used by the House of Lords, one of which is placed on the Woolsack before the house meets and is absent when a monarch is there in person delivering the King's or Queen's Speech.[152] In the late 17th century there were 16 maces, but only 13 survive, 10 of which are on display at the Tower of London. Two of these are carried in the royal procession at State Openings of Parliament and coronations. Each mace is about 1.5 m (4.9 ft) long and weighs an average of 10 kg (22 lb).[153] They are silver-gilt and were made between 1660 and 1695.[93]
Anointing objects
When a monarch is anointed, the Dean of Westminster first pours holy anointing oil from an ampulla into a spoon.[154]
Ampulla
The Ampulla, 20.5 cm (8 in) tall and weighing 660 g (1 lb 7+1⁄4 oz), is a hollow gold vessel made in 1661 and shaped like an eagle with outspread wings. Its head unscrews, enabling the vessel to be filled with oil, which exits via a hole in the beak.
Coronation Spoon
The 27-centimetre-long (10+1⁄2 in) Coronation Spoon, which dates from the late 12th century, is silver-gilt and set with four pearls added in the 17th century. A ridge divides the bowl in half, creating grooves into which the
Robes and ornaments
The anointing is followed by investing with coronations robes and ornaments.[r]
Robes
All the robes have priestly connotations and their form has changed little since the Middle Ages. A tradition of wearing St Edward's robes came to an end in 1547 after the English Reformation, but was revived in 1603 by James I to emphasise his belief in the divine nature of kingship.[163] As well as robes, a monarch also wore cloth-of-gold buskins or sandals, depending on his or her foot size.[164] These holy relics were destroyed along with royal crowns and ornaments in the Civil War. New robes were made for each monarch starting with Charles II, a practice that ended in 1911, when George V reused the 1902 Supertunica (a dalmatic), and the Imperial Mantle (a cope), fashioned for George IV in 1821.[163][s] They were also worn by his successors George VI, Elizabeth II and Charles III. Together, the gold robes weigh approximately 10 kg (22 lb).[166] A new Stole Royal was made in 2023 for Charles III by the Royal School of Needlework, taking inspiration from the 1953 stole of his predecessor, Elizabeth II. It is adorned with emblems of the four countries of the United Kingdom, a dove representing the Holy Spirit, a Tudor-style crown, and a pattern based on the Cosmati Pavement in Westminster Abbey.[167]
Spurs
Prick
Armills
The Armills are gold bracelets of sincerity and wisdom.[170] Like spurs, they were first used at English coronations in the 12th century.[171] By the 17th century, armills were no longer delivered to the monarch, but simply carried at the coronation. A new pair had to be made in 1661; they are 4 cm (1.6 in) wide, 7 cm (2.8 in) in diameter, and champlevé enamelled on the surface with roses, thistles and harps (the national symbols of England, Scotland and Ireland) as well as fleurs-de-lis.[172] For Elizabeth II's coronation in 1953, the tradition of wearing armills was revived, and a new set of plain 22-karat gold armills lined with crimson velvet presented to the Queen on behalf of various Commonwealth governments. Each bracelet is fitted with an invisible hinge and a clasp in the form of a Tudor rose. The hallmark includes a tiny portrait of the Queen,[173] who continued to wear them upon leaving the Abbey and could be seen wearing them later, along with the Imperial State Crown and Sovereign's Ring, at her appearance on the balcony of Buckingham Palace.[174]
Orbs
An orb, a type of
Rings
The Sovereign's Ring has been worn by monarchs at their coronation since
Before 1831, monarchs generally received a new ring symbolising their "marriage" to the nation,
Sceptres
The
The Sovereign's Sceptre with Dove, which has also been known as the Rod of Equity and Mercy, is emblematic of their spiritual role. It is slightly longer, at 1.1 m (3.6 ft), but weighs about the same as the Sceptre with Cross. The sceptre is decorated with 285 gemstones, including 94 diamonds, 53 rubies, 10 emeralds, 4 sapphires and 3 spinels.
The Crown Jewels include two sceptres made for Mary of Modena in 1685: a gold sceptre with a cross known as the Queen Consort's Sceptre with Cross, and another made of ivory topped by a dove known as the Queen Consort's Ivory Rod with Dove. Unlike the sovereign's dove, this one has folded wings and is relatively small. It was last used by Queen Elizabeth, later known as the Queen Mother, at her husband George VI's coronation in 1937. For the coronation of Mary II, the wife and joint sovereign of William III, a more elaborate gold sceptre with dove was commissioned in 1689. It has not been used since, and went missing for several decades, only to be found in 1814 at the back of a cupboard in the Tower of London.[178]
Altar plate
In the Jewel House there is a collection of
One of the most striking pieces is a large dish 95 cm (3.12 ft) across and weighing 13 kg (28.7 lb), in the centre of which is a relief depiction of the
An altar dish and flagon were made in 1691 for the royal Church of St Peter ad Vincula at the Tower of London. The dish measures 70 cm (2.3 ft) across and depicts the Last Supper above the coat of arms of co-regents William III and Mary II.[198] The flagon stands 42.5 cm (1.4 ft) tall.[199] Both pieces are still used in the chapel on Easter, Whitsun and Christmas, and they were first displayed at a coronation in 1821.[200] Another dish still in regular use is the Maundy Dish – one of six used by the King at Royal Maundy for handing out alms to elderly people in recognition of their service to the church and local community. The ceremony, which takes place in a different cathedral every year, entirely replaced the ancient custom of washing the feet of the poor in 1730, and the dish, though it bears the royal cypher of William and Mary, dates from the reign of Charles II. Two purses containing specially minted coins are taken from the dish and presented to each recipient.[201]
Banqueting plate
The last coronation banquet held at Westminster Hall took place in 1821 for George IV.[202] Silverware used at those banquets include the Plymouth Fountain, a wine fountain made around 1640 by a German goldsmith and presented to Charles II by the city of Plymouth. Gilded for George II in 1726, it is 77.5 cm (2.5 ft) tall and decorated with flowers, fruit, dolphins, mermaids and sea monsters.[203] The nautical theme is continued in the silver-gilt Wine Cistern, also known as the Grand Punch Bowl, which is cast as a giant oyster shell. It weighs 257 kg (567 lb), measures 0.76 m × 1.38 m × 1.01 m (2.5 ft × 4.5 ft × 3.3 ft), and can hold 144 bottles of wine on ice.[204] It was commissioned in 1829 by George IV but not completed until after his death. It is the heaviest surviving piece of English banqueting plate.[205] In 1841, the cistern was re-purposed as a punch bowl, with the addition of a large ivory-stemmed ladle, which has a silver-gilt bowl in the form of a nautilus shell.[206]
The Exeter Salt is a 45-centimetre (1.5 ft) tall
Eleven smaller salts named after St George were originally made for a
Baptismal plate
Three silver-gilt objects (comprising a total of six parts) associated with royal christenings are displayed in the Jewel House. Charles II's 95-centimetre (3 ft 1 in) tall font was created in 1661 and stood on a basin to catch any spills.[93] Surmounting the font's domed lid is a figure of Philip the Evangelist baptising the Ethiopian eunuch.[210] While Charles's marriage to Catherine of Braganza produced no heir, the font may have been used to secretly baptise some of his 13 illegitimate children.[211] In 1688, James Francis Edward Stuart, son of James II and Mary of Modena, was the first royal baby to be christened using this object.[212]
A ewer and basin of French design made in 1735 were only used at two christenings. The 46-centimetre (1 ft 6 in) tall ewer's handle is topped by a figure of Hercules slaying the Hydra, an unlikely motif for baptismal plate, suggesting it originally had an alternate purpose. Indeed, it was first used in 1738 at the impromptu christening of a "very ill" future George III only hours after his birth.[213] His father, Frederick, Prince of Wales, was also banished from the royal court and forbidden to use the Charles II font.[211] An inscription on the ewer records its presence at the 1780 christening of George III's youngest son, Prince Alfred.[213]
The
Ownership, management and value
The Crown Jewels are part of the
See also
Notes
- ^ Three maces from the Jewel House are on permanent loan to the Palace of Westminster.[1] Objects can be temporarily moved to other exhibitions.
- ^ Technically, the Crown Jewels are the regalia and vestments used or worn by monarchs at a coronation.[4] However, the term has been commonly used to refer to the contents of the Jewel House since at least the 17th century.[5] The inventory in Keay (2011) extends to items displayed in the Martin Tower.
- queens regnant are not crowned in the United Kingdom.[8]
- ^ British Museum number 1990,0102.24
- ^ British Museum number 1957,0207.15
- ^ British Museum number 1956,1011.2
- ^ British Museum number 1939,1010.160
- Thomas Frederick Tout gives an illuminating second-hand account of one such theft in A Mediæval Burglary(1916).
- ^ For the schedule of royal jewels see Nichols, John (1828), The Progresses, etc. of King James the First, vol. 2, p. 45.
- ^ "An Order of the House concerning the Pawning of the Crown Jewels at Amsterdam" can be found in Rushworth, John (1721), Historical Collections, vol. 4, p. 736.
- ^ For the inventory see Millar, Oliver, ed. (1972). "The Inventories and Valuations of the King's Goods 1649–1651" in The Volume of the Walpole Society, vol. 43. pp. 20–51.
- ^ The Lord Mayor of London carried the Crystal Sceptre at the coronation of Charles III.[69]
- ^ Vyner outsourced work to fellow members of the Goldsmiths' Company.[74]
- ^ There is a list of additions and alterations up to Queen Victoria's 1838 coronation in Jones, pp. 63–72. For a timeline of changes between 1855 and 1967 see Holmes and Sitwell, pp. 76–78. A thorough history is contained in Blair, vol. 2.
- ^ In 1937 and 1953 the coronation was rehearsed using a set of replicas made by Messrs Robert White and Sons. After 1953 the set was purchased jointly by the Abbey and the Ministry of Works, and it has been displayed in the Abbey's triforium since 2018.[89]
- ^ The Tudor Crown was reinstated in 2022 by Elizabeth's successor, Charles III.[101]
- ^ Prior to decimalisation in 1971 the sword was redeemed for 100 shillings.[140]
- ^ Objects are listed in the order in which they are presented to a monarch.
- ^ George IV never wore the Supertunica. Westminster Abbey took custody of the robe and it was donated to the Crown by a private owner in 1911.[165]
- ISBN 978-1-137-60144-5.
- ^ In 1995, three historical crown frames then owned by Asprey and now in the Tower of London were valued for an export licence application:[221]
- State Crown of George I, £576,000 (c. £915,000 in 2019[222])
- Crown of Queen Adelaide, £425,000 (c. £675,000 in 2019[222])
- Coronation Crown of George IV, £376,000 (c. £597,000 in 2019[222])
References
- ^ a b Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 12.
- ^ a b c "Royal Collection Season on the BBC: BBC One The Coronation". Royal Collection Trust. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021.
- ^ "Crown Jewels". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). Vol. 211. United Kingdom: House of Commons. 16 July 1992. col. 944W.
- ^ a b "Crown Jewels". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). Vol. 267. United Kingdom: House of Commons. 27 November 1995. col. 447W.
- ^ Keay (2002), p. 3.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 5.
- ^ Keay (2011), dust jacket.
- ^ Allison and Riddell, p. 451.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 9.
- ^ Parfitt, p. 86.
- ^ a b Twining, pp. 100–102.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 12.
- ^ a b Barker, pp. 25–29.
- ^ "The Sutton Hoo Helmet". British Museum. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
- ^ Keay (2011), pp. 13–18.
- ^ a b Kathryn Jones (17 December 2014). "Royal Gold: Reflections of Power" (Podcast). Royal Collection Trust. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 17.
- ^ Steane, p. 31.
- ^ Twining, p. 103.
- ^ Steane, p. 14.
- ^ Hinton, p. 142.
- ^ a b c Keay (2011), pp. 18–20.
- ^ Nicholas, p. 220.
- ^ Steane, p. 71.
- ^ Strong, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Rose, p. 13.
- ^ "Profile: Westminster Abbey". BBC News. 23 November 2010. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
- ^ Rose, p. 16.
- ^ Rose, p. 14.
- ^ Holmes, p. 216.
- ^ Holmes, p. 217.
- ^ Twining, p. 132.
- ^ Rose, p. 24.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 22.
- ^ Williams, p. xxxii.
- ^ Breeze, et al., p. 201.
- ^ "The Coronation Chair". Westminster Abbey. Retrieved 17 July 2016.
- ^ Breeze, et al., p. 216.
- ^ "The Wars of Independence". Scotland's History. BBC Scotland. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
- ^ Twining, p. 117.
- ^ Steane, p. 34.
- ^ Stratford, p. 11.
- ^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
- ^ a b Steane, p. 35.
- ^ Collins, p. 75.
- ^ Keay (2011), pp. 33–34.
- ^ Rose, p. 25.
- ^ a b Collins, p. 11.
- ^ Dale Hoak in Hoak, "The iconography of the crown imperial", pp. 55, 63.
- ^ Keay (2011), pp. 27–28.
- ^ David Dean in Hoak, "Image and ritual in the Tudor parliaments", p. 243.
- ^ a b c Keay (2011), p. 30.
- ^ a b c Keay (2011), p. 32.
- ^ Rose, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Strong, pp. 191–193.
- ^ a b Ronald Lightbown in MacGregor, "The King's Regalia, Insignia and Jewellery", p. 257.
- ^ Philippa Glanville in Abramova and Dmitrieva, "The Goldsmiths and the Court: Silver in London 1600–65", p. 52; Collins, p. 168.
- ^ Keay (2011), pp. 37–38.
- ^ Barker, p. 46.
- ^ Barker, pp. 48–49.
- ISSN 1638-1718.
- ^ Philippa Glanville in Abramova and Dmitrieva, "The Goldsmiths and the Court: Silver in London 1600–65", p. 54.
- ^ a b c d e Mears, et al., p. 6.
- ^ Rose, p. 17.
- ^ Keay (2011), pp. 40–41.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 43.
- ^ Keay (2011), pp. 20–21.
- ^ "Henry V's 'Crystal Sceptre' displayed at Guildhall Art Gallery". City of London. Retrieved 21 January 2018.
- ^ "His Majesty the King's and the Lord Mayor's speeches at Mansion House". Livery Committee. 19 October 2023.
- ^ Collins, p. 196.
- ^ Barker, pp. 57–58.
- ^ Barclay, pp. 157–159.
- ^ Rose, p 18.
- ^ Jacobsen, p. 16.
- ^ a b "Crown Jewels factsheet 2" (PDF). Historic Royal Palaces. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2020. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 7.
- ^ Collins, p. 12.
- ^ Philippa Glanville in Abramova and Dmitrieva, "The Goldsmiths and the Court: Silver in London 1600–65", p. 56. and Holmes, p. 54.
- ^ Mears, et al., pp. 46–47.
- ^ Hammond, p. 20.
- ^ Rose, p. 20.
- ^ Barker, p. 66.
- ^ Douglas S. Mack in McCracken-Flesher, "Can the Scottish Subaltern Speak? Nonelite Scotland and the Scottish Parliament", p. 145.
- ^ Aronson, p. 81.
- ^ Shenton, pp. 203–204.
- ^ Hennessy, p. 237.
- ^ a b Emma Owen; James FitzGerald (6 May 2023). "Charles and Camilla crowned King and Queen at Westminster Abbey". BBC News.
- ^ Royal Household. "Symbols of the Monarchy: The Crown Jewels". British Monarchy website. Archived from the original on 9 March 2015.
- ^ Jenkins & Trowles, p. 41.
- ^ Morris, p. 27.
- ^ Maev Kennedy; Katy Roberts (28 March 2012). "Crown Jewels go on show for major new exhibition". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
- ^ Rose, p. 22.
- ^ a b c d Keay (2011), pp. 189–195.
- ^ a b Mears, et al., p. 23.
- ^ Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31700.
- ^ Holmes, p. 220.
- ^ Barclay, pp. 150, 151, 167.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 61.
- ^ Keay (2002), p. 23.
- ^ "Victorian Coat of Arms". Victoria State Government. Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
- ^ "Royal Cypher". College of Arms. 27 September 2022.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 29.
- ^ Keay (2011), pp. 174–175.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 30.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 183.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31701.
- ^ a b c Mears, et al., p. 30.
- ^ Olivia Fryman in Bird and Clayton, "Ceremony and Coronation", p. 102.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 38.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 25.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 137.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 50.
- ^ Keay (2011), pp. 164–166.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 175.
- ^ a b Mears, et al., p. 27.
- ^ Twining, p. 167.
- ^ a b Keay (2011), p. 178.
- ^ Allison and Riddell, p. 134.
- ^ "Priceless gem in Queen Mother's crown". BBC News. 4 April 2002. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
- ^ Caroline Davies (14 February 2023). "Camilla to wear recycled crown without Koh-i-Noor diamond at coronation". The Guardian.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31709.
- ^ Keay (2002), p. 26.
- ^ Boutell, p. 205.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 31.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31710.
- ^ "Honours of the Principality of Wales". The Royal Family. 15 January 2016. Retrieved 20 September 2022.
- ^ Allison and Riddell, p. 265.
- ^ Jennifer Latson (11 December 2014). "King Edward and Wallis Simpson: The English Royal Abdication". Time. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 24.
- ^ "His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales's Investiture Coronet to go on display at the Tower of London for the first time". Historic Royal Palaces. Retrieved 29 March 2020.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31705.
- ^ Twining, p. 169.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 33.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 7.
- ^ Rose, pp. 46–47.
- ^ a b Strong, p. 268.
- ^ Keay (2011), pp. 96–97.
- ^ Twining, p. 172.
- ^ Abraham, Tamara (6 May 2023). "Penny Mordaunt emerges as the Pippa Middleton of the Coronation". The Telegraph.
- ^ a b c d e Rose, pp. 49–51.
- ^ Royal Collection Trust. "The Jewelled Sword of Offering 1820". Royal Collection Trust. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 127.
- ^ "The Irish Sword of State". Dublin Castle. Retrieved 22 May 2018.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31717.
- ^ Twining, p. 143.
- ^ Ronald Lightbown in MacGregor, "The King's Regalia, Insignia and Jewellery", p. 265.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 63.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 10.
- ^ Jones, p. 54.
- ^ "The Band of the Household Cavalry". British Army. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
- ^ "The Central Band of the RAF". Royal Air Force. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017.
- ^ "Mace (The)". Parliament.uk. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 8.
- ^ King George's Jubilee Trust, p. 25.
- ^ Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31732.
- ^ a b Rose, pp. 95–98.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 48.
- ^ Gordon Rayner (4 June 2013). "Crown to leave Tower for first time since 1953 for Westminster Abbey service". The Telegraph. UK. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31733.
- ^ Strong, pp. 78–79.
- ^ Strong, pp. 270–271.
- ^ Caroline de Guitaut (11 February 2015). "Cloth of Gold: The Use of Gold in Royal Couture" (Podcast). Royal Collection Trust. 16:50 minutes in. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
- ^ a b Rose, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Valerie Cumming in MacGregor, "'Great vanity and excesse in Apparell'. Some Clothing and Furs of Tudor and Stuart Royalty", p. 327.
- ^ Cox, p. 279.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 14.
- ^ "Coronation outfits worn by Their Majesties King Charles III and Queen Camilla to go on display at Buckingham Palace". Royal Collection Trust. 19 May 2023.
- ^ Rose, pp. 50–52.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 22.
- ^ Barker, p. 94.
- ^ Rose, p. 52.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31723.
- ^ a b Twining, p. 171.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 17.
- ^ a b Rose, p. 45.
- ^ a b Mears, et al., p. 19.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31718.
- ^ a b Rose, p. 42.
- ^ King George's Jubilee Trust, pp. 26, 31.
- ^ Twining, p. 173.
- ^ a b Lawrence E. Tanner (6 June 1953). "The Queen's coronation: The story of the regalia". Country Life. pp. 52–61. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
- ^ "The Authorised Liturgy for the Coronation Rite of His Majesty King Charles III" (PDF). Church of England. 29 April 2023.
- ^ Rose, p. 26.
- ^ Hibbert, p. 35.
- ^ a b Rose, p. 107.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31721.
- ^ Oman, p. 49.
- ^ Piacenti and Boardman, pp. 199–200.
- ^ Arts Council of Great Britain, p. 58.
- ^ a b Steane, p. 36.
- ^ a b Rose, p. 41.
- ^ Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31712.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31713.
- ^ Mears, et al., p. 34.
- ^ "Banqueting and church plate". Royal Collection Trust. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31745.
- ^ Mears, et al., pp. 35–36.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31744.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31752.
- ^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 64.
- ^ Office for the Royal Maundy (2011). The Maundy Service (PDF). Westminster Abbey.
- ^ "Coronation banquets". Parliament.uk. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31742.
- ^ Mears, et al., pp. 42–43.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 150.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31769.
- ^ Keay (2011), p. 70.
- ^ Olivia Fryman in Bird and Clayton, "Ceremony and Coronation", p. 82.
- ^ Mears, et al., pp. 39–40.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31739.
- ^ a b c Mears, et al., p. 44.
- ^ Keay (2002), p. 43.
- ^ Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31740.
- Royal Collection Trust. Inventory no. 31741.
- ^ "Queen Victoria's font to be used for Princess Charlotte's baptism". The Yorkshire Post. 5 July 2015. Retrieved 10 December 2015.
- ^ a b Bogdanor, p. 190.
- ^ Ronald Lightbown in MacGregor, "The King's Regalia, Insignia and Jewellery", p. 259.
- ^ "Ethiopian Manuscripts". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). Vol. 263. United Kingdom: House of Commons. 19 July 1995. col. 1463W.
- ^ "Royal Residences". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). Vol. 407. United Kingdom: House of Commons. 19 June 2003. col. 353W.
- ^ "Crown Jewels factsheet" (PDF). Historic Royal Palaces. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
- ^ Reviewing Committee on the Export of Works of Art, pp. 48–50.
- ^ Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the MeasuringWorth "consistent series" supplied in Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2018). "What Was the U.K. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 2 February 2020.
- ^ Hoey, p. 64.
- ^ Hoey, p. 197.
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External links
- Royal Collection Trust
- The Crown Jewels at Historic Royal Palaces
- The Crown Jewels at the website of the British royal family
Videos:
- Royal Regalia from The Coronation (2018) with commentary by Anna Keay
- The Crown Jewels (1967) by British Pathé
- The Crown Jewels (1937) by British Pathé