Petroleum
Petroleum, also known as crude oil or simply oil, is a naturally occurring yellowish-black liquid mixture of mainly hydrocarbons,[1] and is found in geological formations. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that consist of refined crude oil.
Petroleum is primarily recovered by
exist.Once extracted, oil is refined and separated, most easily by
Petroleum exploitation can be damaging to the environment and human health. Extraction, refining and burning of petroleum fuels all release large quantities of greenhouse gases, so petroleum is one of the major contributors to climate change. Other negative environmental effects include direct releases, such as oil spills, and as well as air and water pollution at almost all stages of use. These environmental effects have direct and indirect health consequences for humans. Oil has also been a source of internal and inter-state conflict, leading to both state-led wars and other resource conflicts. Production of petroleum is estimated to reach peak oil before 2035[3] as global economies lower dependencies on petroleum as part of climate change mitigation and a transition towards renewable energy and electrification.[4] Oil has played a key role in industrialization and economic development.[5]
Etymology
The word petroleum comes from Medieval Latin petroleum (literally 'rock oil'), which comes from Latin petra 'rock' (from Greek pétra πέτρα) and oleum 'oil' (from Greek élaion ἔλαιον).[6][7]
The origin of the term stems from monasteries in southern Italy where it was in use by the end of the first millennium as an alternative for the older term "
History
Early
Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times. More than 4300 years ago, bitumen was mentioned when the Sumerians used it to make boats. A tablet of the legend of the birth of Sargon of Akkad mentions a basket which was closed by straw and bitumen. More than 4000 years ago, according to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, asphalt was used in the construction of the walls and towers of Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca and Babylon, and a pitch spring on Zakynthos.[10] Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, one of the tributaries of the Euphrates. Ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society.
The use of petroleum in ancient China dates back to more than 2000 years ago. The I Ching, one of the earliest Chinese writings, cites that oil in its raw state, without refining, was first discovered, extracted, and used in China in the first century BCE.[clarification needed] In addition, the Chinese were the first to record the use of petroleum as fuel as early as the fourth century BCE.[11][12][13] By 347 CE, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China.[14][15]
In the 7th century, petroleum was among the essential ingredients for Greek fire, an incendiary projectile weapon that was used by Byzantine Greeks against Arab ships, which were then attacking Constantinople.[16] Crude oil was also distilled by Persian chemists, with clear descriptions given in Arabic handbooks such as those of Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes).[17] The streets of Baghdad were paved with tar, derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region.
In the 9th century,
Sophisticated oil pits, 4.5 to 6 metres (15 to 20 ft) deep, were dug by the Seneca people and other Iroquois in Western Pennsylvania as early as 1415–1450. The French General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm encountered Seneca using petroleum for ceremonial fires and as a healing lotion during a visit to Fort Duquesne in 1750.[21]
Early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production.[22]
Merkwiller-Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, notably for medical purposes.
19th century
The world's first oil well was drilled in 1859 by Edwin Drake at what is now called the Drake Well in Cherrytree Township, Pennsylvania. Drake's well is considered the first because it was drilled, not dug, and used a steam engine. There also was a company associated with it, and it sparked a major oil drilling boom.[23]
Prior to the first well drilled by Drake, there was activity in various parts of the world in the mid-19th century. A group directed by Major Alexeyev of the Bakinskii Corps of Mining Engineers hand-drilled a well in the Baku region of Bibi-Heybat in 1846.[24] There were engine-drilled wells in West Virginia in the same year as Drake's well.[25] An early commercial well was hand dug in Poland in 1853, and another in nearby Romania in 1857. At around the same time the world's first, small, oil refinery was opened at Jasło in Poland, with a larger one opened at Ploiești in Romania shortly after. Romania is the first country in the world to have had its annual crude oil output officially recorded in international statistics: 275 tonnes for 1857.[26][27]
In 1858, Georg Christian Konrad Hunäus found a significant amount of petroleum while drilling for lignite in Wietze, Germany. Wietze later provided about 80% of German consumption in the Wilhelminian Era.[28] The production stopped in 1963, but Wietze has hosted a Petroleum Museum since 1970.[29]
Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century.[30] In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century.[31] Both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies.[32]
Chemist James Young in 1847 noticed a natural petroleum seepage in the coal mine at riddings Alfreton, Derbyshire from which he distilled a light thin oil suitable for use as lamp oil, at the same time obtaining a more viscous oil suitable for lubricating machinery. In 1848, Young set up a small business refining crude oil.[33]
Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain several useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.[33]
The production of these oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated October 17, 1850. In 1850, Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E.W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian and E. Meldrum & Co. at Glasgow; their works at Bathgate were completed in 1851 and became the first truly commercial oil-works in the world with the first modern oil refinery.[34][clarification needed]
The world's first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz.[35] His achievements also included the discovery of how to distill kerosene from seep oil, the invention of the modern kerosene lamp (1853), the introduction of the first modern street lamp in Europe (1853), and the construction of the world's first modern oil "mine" (1854).[36] at Bóbrka, near Krosno (still operational as of 2020).
The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America and around the world quickly grew.[37]
The
20th century
Access to oil was and still is a major factor in several military conflicts of the 20th century, including
Oil exploration in North America during the early 20th century later led to the U.S. becoming the leading producer by mid-century. As petroleum production in the U.S. peaked during the 1960s, the United States was surpassed by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union in total output.[46][47][48]
In
21st century
The two oil price shocks had many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy.[50] They led to sustained reductions in demand as a result of substitution to other fuels, especially coal and nuclear, and improvements in energy efficiency, facilitated by government policies.[51] High oil prices also induced investment in oil production by non-OPEC countries, including Prudhoe Bay in Alaska, the North Sea offshore fields of the United Kingdom and Norway, the Cantarell offshore field of Mexico, and oil sands in Canada.[52]
About 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40 percent of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only one percent of electricity generation.[53] Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important commodities.
The top three oil-producing countries as of 2018 are the United States,
About 80 percent of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the
Composition
Petroleum includes not only crude oil, but all liquid, gaseous and solid
An
The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture varies among different
The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly
Element | Percent range |
---|---|
Carbon | 83 to 85% |
Hydrogen | 10 to 14% |
Nitrogen | 0.1 to 2% |
Oxygen | 0.05 to 1.5% |
Sulfur | 0.05 to 6.0% |
Metals | < 0.1% |
Four different types of hydrocarbon appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each oil.[59]
Hydrocarbon | Average | Range |
---|---|---|
Alkanes (paraffins) | 30% | 15 to 60% |
Naphthenes |
49% | 30 to 60% |
Aromatics |
15% | 3 to 30% |
Asphaltics | 6% | remainder |
The alkanes from
The aromatic hydrocarbons are
These different molecules are separated by fractional distillation at an oil refinery to produce gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbon fractions.
The number of various molecules in an oil sample can be determined by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry.[65] Due to the large number of co-eluted hydrocarbons within oil, many cannot be resolved by traditional gas chromatography and typically appear as a hump in the chromatogram. This unresolved complex mixture (UCM) of hydrocarbons is particularly apparent when analysing weathered oils and extracts from tissues of organisms exposed to oil.
Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a "gas cap" over the petroleum, and
Formation
Fossil petroleum
Petroleum is a
As further layers settled into the sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure built up in the lower regions. This process caused the organic matter to change, first into a waxy material known as kerogen, found in various oil shales around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons via a process known as catagenesis. Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon pyrolysis in a variety of mainly endothermic reactions at high temperatures or pressures, or both.[71][72] These phases are described in detail below.
Anaerobic decay
In the absence of plentiful oxygen,
Kerogen formation
Some phenolic compounds produced from previous reactions worked as bactericides and the actinomycetales order of bacteria also produced antibiotic compounds (e.g., streptomycin). Thus the action of anaerobic bacteria ceased at about 10 m below the water or sediment. The mixture at this depth contained fulvic acids, unreacted and partially reacted fats and waxes, slightly modified lignin, resins and other hydrocarbons.[71] As more layers of organic matter settled into the sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure built up in the lower regions.[72] As a consequence, compounds of this mixture began to combine in poorly understood ways to kerogen. Combination happened in a similar fashion as phenol and formaldehyde molecules react to urea-formaldehyde resins, but kerogen formation occurred in a more complex manner due to a bigger variety of reactants. The total process of kerogen formation from the beginning of anaerobic decay is called diagenesis, a word that means a transformation of materials by dissolution and recombination of their constituents.[71]
Transformation of kerogen into fossil fuels
Kerogen formation continued to a depth of about 1
Catagenesis was pyrolytic despite the fact that it happened at relatively low temperatures (when compared to commercial pyrolysis plants) of 60 to several hundred °C. Pyrolysis was possible because of the long reaction times involved. Heat for catagenesis came from the decomposition of radioactive materials of the crust, especially 40K, 232Th, 235U and 238U. The heat varied with geothermal gradient and was typically 10–30 °C per km of depth from the Earth's surface. Unusual magma intrusions, however, could have created greater localized heating.[71]
Oil window (temperature range)
Geologists often refer to the temperature range in which oil forms as an "oil window".
Abiogenic petroleum
An alternative mechanism to the one described above was proposed by Russian scientists in the mid-1850s, the hypothesis of abiogenic petroleum origin (petroleum formed by inorganic means), but this is contradicted by geological and geochemical evidence.[75] Abiogenic sources of oil have been found, but never in commercially profitable amounts. "The controversy isn't over whether abiogenic oil reserves exist," said Larry Nation of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. "The controversy is over how much they contribute to Earth's overall reserves and how much time and effort geologists should devote to seeking them out."[76]
Reservoirs
This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2016) |
Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form:
- A source rock rich in hydrocarbon material buried deeply enough for subterranean heat to cook it into oil,
- A permeablereservoir rock where it can accumulate,
- A .
The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often modeled as first order breakdown reactions, where hydrocarbons are broken down to oil and natural gas by a set of parallel reactions, and oil eventually breaks down to natural gas by another set of reactions. The latter set is regularly used in petrochemical plants and oil refineries.
Petroleum has mostly been recovered by
Unconventional oil reservoirs
Oil-eating bacteria biodegrade oil that has escaped to the surface. Oil sands are reservoirs of partially biodegraded oil still in the process of escaping and being biodegraded, but they contain so much migrating oil that, although most of it has escaped, vast amounts are still present—more than can be found in conventional oil reservoirs. The lighter fractions of the crude oil are destroyed first, resulting in reservoirs containing an extremely heavy form of crude oil, called crude bitumen in Canada, or extra-heavy crude oil in Venezuela. These two countries have the world's largest deposits of oil sands.[79]
On the other hand,
Classification
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (January 2024) |
The petroleum industry generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location it is produced in (e.g., West Texas Intermediate, Brent, or Oman), its API gravity (an oil industry measure of density), and its sulfur content. Crude oil may be considered light if it has low density, heavy if it has high density, or medium if it has a density between that of light and heavy.[81] Additionally, it may be referred to as sweet if it contains relatively little sulfur or sour if it contains substantial amounts of sulfur.[82]
The geographic location is important because it affects transportation costs to the refinery. Light crude oil is more desirable than heavy oil since it produces a higher yield of gasoline, while sweet oil commands a higher price than sour oil because it has fewer environmental problems and requires less refining to meet sulfur standards imposed on fuels in consuming countries. Each crude oil has unique molecular characteristics which are revealed by the use of crude oil assay analysis in petroleum laboratories.[83]
Barrels from an area in which the crude oil's molecular characteristics have been determined and the oil has been classified are used as pricing references throughout the world. Some of the common reference crudes are:[citation needed]
- West Texas Intermediate (WTI), a very high-quality, sweet, light oil delivered at Cushing, Oklahoma for North American oil
- Brent Blend, consisting of 15 oils from fields in the Brent and Ninian systems in the East Shetland Basin of the North Sea. The oil landed at Sullom Voe terminal in Shetland. Oil production from Europe, Africa and Middle Eastern oil flowing West tends to be priced off this oil, which forms a benchmark
- Dubai-Oman, used as a benchmark for the Middle East sour crude oil flowing to the Asia-Pacific region
- Tapis (from Malaysia, used as a reference for light Far East oil)
- Minas (from Indonesia, used as a reference for heavy Far East oil)
- The OPEC Reference Basket, a weighted average of oil blends from various OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries
- Midway Sunset Heavy, by which heavy oil in California is priced[84][failed verification]
- Western Canadian Select the benchmark crude oil for emerging heavy, high TAN (acidic) crudes.[85]
There are declining amounts of these benchmark oils being produced each year, so other oils are more commonly what is actually delivered. While the reference price may be for West Texas Intermediate delivered at Cushing, the actual oil being traded may be a discounted Canadian heavy oil – Western Canadian Select – delivered at Hardisty, Alberta, and for a Brent Blend delivered at Shetland, it may be a discounted Russian Export Blend delivered at the port of Primorsk.[86]
Once extracted, oil is refined and separated, most easily by
Use
In terms of volume, most petroleum is converted into fuels for combustion engines. In terms of value, petroleum underpins the petrochemical industry, which includes many high value products such as pharmaceuticals and plastics.
Fuels and lubricants
Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for refining into fuel oil and gasoline, both important primary energy sources. 84% by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into fuels, including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas.[89]
Due to its high
Closely related to fuels for combustion engines are Lubricants, greases, and viscosity stabilizers. All are derived from petroleum.
Chemicals
All
Other derivatives
- Wax, used in the packaging of frozen foods, among others, Paraffin wax, derived from petroleum oil.[96]
- Sulfur and its derivative sulfuric acid. Hydrogen sulfide is a product of sulfur removal from petroleum fraction. It is oxidized to elemental sulfur and then to sulfuric acid.
- Bulk tar and Asphalt
- Petroleum coke, used in speciality carbon products or as solid fuel
Industry
The
Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is necessary for the maintenance of industrial civilization in its current configuration, making it a critical concern for many nations. Oil accounts for a large percentage of the world's energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32% for Europe and Asia, to a high of 53% for the Middle East.
Other geographic regions' consumption patterns are as follows: South and Central America (44%), Africa (41%), and North America (40%). The world consumes 36 billion barrels (5.8 km3) of oil per year,[97] with developed nations being the largest consumers. The United States consumed 18% of the oil produced in 2015.[98] The production, distribution, refining, and retailing of petroleum taken as a whole represents the world's largest industry in terms of dollar value.Transport
In the 1950s, shipping costs made up 33 percent of the price of oil transported from the
Price
This article needs to be updated.(March 2022) |
The
The global price of crude oil was relatively consistent in the nineteenth century and early twentieth century.[103] This changed in the 1970s, with a significant increase in the price of oil globally.[103] There have been a number of structural drivers of global oil prices historically, including oil supply, demand, and storage shocks, and shocks to global economic growth affecting oil prices.[104] Notable events driving significant price fluctuations include the 1973
Trade
Crude oil is traded as a future on both the NYMEX and ICE exchanges.[117] Futures contracts are agreements in which buyers and sellers agree to purchase and deliver specific amounts of physical crude oil on a given date in the future. A contract covers any multiple of 1000 barrels and can be purchased up to nine years into the future.[118]
Use by country
Consumption statistics
-
Global fossil carbon emissions, an indicator of consumption, from 1800.TotalOil
-
Rate of world energy usage per year from 1970.[119]
-
Daily oil consumption from 1980 to 2006.
-
Oil consumption 1980 to 2007 by region.
Consumption
According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimate for 2017, the world consumes 98.8 million barrels of oil each day.[120]
> 0.07 0.07–0.05 0.05–0.035 0.035–0.025 0.025–0.02 | 0.02–0.015 0.015–0.01 0.01–0.005 0.005–0.0015 < 0.0015 |
This table orders the amount of petroleum consumed in 2011 in thousand barrels (1000 bbl) per day and in thousand cubic metres (1000 m3) per day:[121][122]
Consuming nation 2011 | (1000 bbl/ day) |
(1000 m3/ day) |
Population in millions |
bbl/year per capita |
m3/year per capita |
National production/ consumption |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
United States 1 | 18,835.5 | 2,994.6 | 314 | 21.8 | 3.47 | 0.51 |
China |
9,790.0 | 1,556.5 | 1345 | 2.7 | 0.43 | 0.41 |
Japan 2 | 4,464.1 | 709.7 | 127 | 12.8 | 2.04 | 0.03 |
India 2 | 3,292.2 | 523.4 | 1198 | 1 | 0.16 | 0.26 |
Russia 1 | 3,145.1 | 500.0 | 140 | 8.1 | 1.29 | 3.35 |
Saudi Arabia (OPEC) | 2,817.5 | 447.9 | 27 | 40 | 6.4 | 3.64 |
Brazil | 2,594.2 | 412.4 | 193 | 4.9 | 0.78 | 0.99 |
Germany 2 | 2,400.1 | 381.6 | 82 | 10.7 | 1.70 | 0.06 |
Canada | 2,259.1 | 359.2 | 33 | 24.6 | 3.91 | 1.54 |
South Korea 2 | 2,230.2 | 354.6 | 48 | 16.8 | 2.67 | 0.02 |
Mexico 1 | 2,132.7 | 339.1 | 109 | 7.1 | 1.13 | 1.39 |
France 2 | 1,791.5 | 284.8 | 62 | 10.5 | 1.67 | 0.03 |
Iran (OPEC) | 1,694.4 | 269.4 | 74 | 8.3 | 1.32 | 2.54 |
United Kingdom 1 | 1,607.9 | 255.6 | 61 | 9.5 | 1.51 | 0.93 |
Italy 2 | 1,453.6 | 231.1 | 60 | 8.9 | 1.41 | 0.10 |
Source: US Energy Information Administration
Population Data:[123]
1 peak production of oil already passed in this state
2 This country is not a major oil producer
Production
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. |
In petroleum industry parlance, production refers to the quantity of crude extracted from reserves, not the literal creation of the product.
Country | Oil Production (bbl/day, 2016)[125] | |
---|---|---|
1 | Russia | 10,551,497 |
2 | Saudi Arabia (OPEC) | 10,460,710 |
3 | United States | 8,875,817 |
4 | Iraq (OPEC) | 4,451,516 |
5 | Iran (OPEC) | 3,990,956 |
6 | China, People's Republic of | 3,980,650 |
7 | Canada | 3,662,694 |
8 | United Arab Emirates (OPEC) | 3,106,077 |
9 | Kuwait (OPEC) | 2,923,825 |
10 | Brazil | 2,515,459 |
11 | Venezuela (OPEC) | 2,276,967 |
12 | Mexico | 2,186,877 |
13 | Nigeria (OPEC) | 1,999,885 |
14 | Angola (OPEC) | 1,769,615 |
15 | Norway | 1,647,975 |
16 | Kazakhstan | 1,595,199 |
17 | Qatar (OPEC) | 1,522,902 |
18 | Algeria (OPEC) | 1,348,361 |
19 | Oman | 1,006,841 |
20 | United Kingdom | 939,760 |
Exportation
In order of net exports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand bbl/d and thousand m3/d:
# | Exporting nation | 103bbl/d (2011) | 103m3/d (2011) | 103bbl/d (2009) | 103m3/d (2009) | 103bbl/d (2006) | 103m3/d (2006) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Saudi Arabia (OPEC) | 8,336 | 1,325 | 7,322 | 1,164 | 8,651 | 1,376 |
2 | Russia 1 | 7,083 | 1,126 | 7,194 | 1,144 | 6,565 | 1,044 |
3 | Iran (OPEC) | 2,540 | 403 | 2,486 | 395 | 2,519 | 401 |
4 | United Arab Emirates (OPEC) | 2,524 | 401 | 2,303 | 366 | 2,515 | 400 |
5 | Kuwait (OPEC) | 2,343 | 373 | 2,124 | 338 | 2,150 | 342 |
6 | Nigeria (OPEC) | 2,257 | 359 | 1,939 | 308 | 2,146 | 341 |
7 | Iraq (OPEC) | 1,915 | 304 | 1,764 | 280 | 1,438 | 229 |
8 | Angola (OPEC) | 1,760 | 280 | 1,878 | 299 | 1,363 | 217 |
9 | Norway 1 | 1,752 | 279 | 2,132 | 339 | 2,542 | 404 |
10 | Venezuela (OPEC) 1 | 1,715 | 273 | 1,748 | 278 | 2,203 | 350 |
11 | Algeria (OPEC) 1 | 1,568 | 249 | 1,767 | 281 | 1,847 | 297 |
12 | Qatar (OPEC) | 1,468 | 233 | 1,066 | 169 | – | – |
13 | Canada 2 | 1,405 | 223 | 1,168 | 187 | 1,071 | 170 |
14 | Kazakhstan | 1,396 | 222 | 1,299 | 207 | 1,114 | 177 |
15 | Azerbaijan 1 | 836 | 133 | 912 | 145 | 532 | 85 |
16 | Trinidad and Tobago 1 | 177 | 112 | 167 | 160 | 155 | 199 |
Source: US Energy Information Administration
1 peak production already passed in this state
2 Canadian statistics are complicated by the fact it is both an importer and exporter of crude oil, and refines large amounts of oil for the U.S. market. It is the leading source of U.S. imports of oil and products, averaging 2,500,000 bbl/d (400,000 m3/d) in August 2007.[126]
Total world production/consumption (as of 2005) is approximately 84 million barrels per day (13,400,000 m3/d).
Importation
In order of net imports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand bbl/d and thousand m3/d:
# | Importing nation | 103bbl/day (2011) | 103m3/day (2011) | 103bbl/day (2009) | 103m3/day (2009) | 103bbl/day (2006) | 103m3/day (2006) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | United States 1 | 8,728 | 1,388 | 9,631 | 1,531 | 12,220 | 1,943 |
2 | China | 5,487 | 872 | 4,328 | 688 | 3,438 | 547 |
3 | Japan | 4,329 | 688 | 4,235 | 673 | 5,097 | 810 |
4 | India | 2,349 | 373 | 2,233 | 355 | 1,687 | 268 |
5 | Germany | 2,235 | 355 | 2,323 | 369 | 2,483 | 395 |
6 | South Korea | 2,170 | 345 | 2,139 | 340 | 2,150 | 342 |
7 | France | 1,697 | 270 | 1,749 | 278 | 1,893 | 301 |
8 | Spain | 1,346 | 214 | 1,439 | 229 | 1,555 | 247 |
9 | Italy | 1,292 | 205 | 1,381 | 220 | 1,558 | 248 |
10 | Singapore | 1,172 | 186 | 916 | 146 | 787 | 125 |
11 | Republic of China (Taiwan) | 1,009 | 160 | 944 | 150 | 942 | 150 |
12 | Netherlands | 948 | 151 | 973 | 155 | 936 | 149 |
13 | Turkey | 650 | 103 | 650 | 103 | 576 | 92 |
14 | Belgium | 634 | 101 | 597 | 95 | 546 | 87 |
15 | Thailand | 592 | 94 | 538 | 86 | 606 | 96 |
Source: US Energy Information Administration
Non-producing consumers
Countries whose oil production is 10% or less of their consumption.
# | Consuming nation | (bbl/day) | (m3/day) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Japan | 5,578,000 | 886,831 |
2 | Germany | 2,677,000 | 425,609 |
3 | South Korea | 2,061,000 | 327,673 |
4 | France | 2,060,000 | 327,514 |
5 | Italy | 1,874,000 | 297,942 |
6 | Spain | 1,537,000 | 244,363 |
7 | Netherlands | 946,700 | 150,513 |
8 | Turkey | 575,011 | 91,663 |
Source: CIA World Factbook[failed verification]
Environmental effects
Climate
As of 2018[update], about a quarter of annual global
Extraction
Oil extraction is simply the removal of oil from the reservoir (oil pool). There are many methods on extracting the oil from the reservoirs for example; mechanical shaking,
Oil spills
Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have damaged natural ecosystems and human livelihoods in Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the Galápagos Islands, France and many other places.
The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., Deepwater Horizon oil spill, SS Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill.
Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin
Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of manpower. The dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft on the SS Torrey Canyon wreck produced poor results;[141] modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in the Prestige oil spill or the Erika oil spill.[142]
Though crude oil is predominantly composed of various hydrocarbons, certain nitrogen heterocyclic compounds, such as pyridine, picoline, and quinoline are reported as contaminants associated with crude oil, as well as facilities processing oil shale or coal, and have also been found at legacy wood treatment sites. These compounds have a very high water solubility, and thus tend to dissolve and move with water. Certain naturally occurring bacteria, such as Micrococcus, Arthrobacter, and Rhodococcus have been shown to degrade these contaminants.[143]
Because petroleum is a naturally occurring substance, its presence in the environment need not be the result of human causes such as accidents and routine activities (seismic exploration, drilling, extraction, refining and combustion). Phenomena such as seeps[144] and tar pits are examples of areas that petroleum affects without man's involvement.
Tarballs
A tarball is a blob of crude oil (not to be confused with
Whales
James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from extinction by providing an inexpensive substitute for whale oil, thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat whaling,[150] but others say that fossil fuels increased whaling with most whales being killed in the 20th century.[151]
Alternatives
In 2018 road transport used 49% of petroleum, aviation 8%, and uses other than energy 17%.[152] Electric vehicles are the main alternative for road transport and biojet for aviation.[153][154][155] Single-use plastics have a high carbon footprint and may pollute the sea, but as of 2022 the best alternatives are unclear.[156]
International relations
Control of petroleum production has been a significant driver of international relations during much of the 20th and 21st centuries.[157] Organizations like OPEC have played an outsized role in international politics. Some historians and commentators have called this the "Age of Oil"[157] With the rise of renewable energy and addressing climate change some commentators expect a realignment of international power away from petrostates.
Corruption
"Oil rents" have been described as connected with corruption in political literature.[158] A 2011 study suggested that increases in oil rents increased corruption in countries with heavy government involvement in the production of oil. The study found that increases in oil rents "significantly deteriorates political rights". The investigators say that oil exploitation gave politicians "an incentive to extend civil liberties but reduce political rights in the presence of oil windfalls to evade redistribution and conflict".[159]
Conflict
Petroleum production has been linked with conflict for many years, leading to thousands of deaths due to these wars/conflicts.[160] Petroleum deposits are in hardly any countries around the world; mainly in Russia and some parts of the middle east.[161][162] Conflicts may start when countries refuse to cut oil production in which other countries respond to such actions by increasing their production causing a trade war as experienced during the 2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war.[163] Other conflicts start due to countries wanting petroleum resources or other reasons on oil resource territory experienced in the Iran–Iraq War.[164]
OPEC
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC, /ˈoʊpɛk/ OH-pek) is an organization enabling the co-operation of leading oil-producing countries in order to collectively influence the global oil market and maximize profit. It was founded on 14 September 1960 in Baghdad by the first five members (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela). The organization, which currently comprises 12 member countries, accounted for an estimated 30 percent of global oil production.[165] A 2022 report further details that OPEC member countries were responsible for approximately 38 percent of it.[166] Additionally, it is estimated that 79.5 percent of the world's proven oil reserves are located within OPEC nations, with the Middle East alone accounting for 67.2 percent of OPEC's total reserves.[167][168]
In a series of steps in the 1960s and 1970s, OPEC restructured the global system of oil production in favor of oil-producing states and away from an
The formation of OPEC marked a turning point toward national sovereignty over natural resources. OPEC decisions have come to play a prominent role in the global oil-market and in international relations. Economists have characterized OPEC as a textbook example of a cartel[172] (a group whose members cooperate to reduce market competition) but one whose consultations may be protected by the doctrine of state immunity under international law.[173]
Former OPEC Secretary-General Mohammad Sanusi Barkindo has clarified the role of the organization with his statement: "OPEC is neither a monopoly nor a cartel, but a platform for stability in oil markets, serving the interests of producers, consumers, and the global economy."[174] This aligns with OPEC's declared objective to coordinate and synchronize the oil policies of its member states. The organization is committed to stabilizing and ensuring equitable pricing for oil producers, securing a consistent and cost-effective supply of oil to consumer countries, and providing a reasonable return on investments for those involved in the petroleum sector.[175]
Current OPEC members are[ref] Algeria, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, the Republic of the Congo, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela. Meanwhile, Angola, Ecuador, Indonesia, and Qatar are former OPEC members.[176] A larger group called OPEC+, consisting of OPEC members plus other oil-producing countries, formed in late 2016 to exert more control on the global crude-oil market.[177] Canada, Egypt, Norway, and Oman are observer states.
On December 10, 2016, the Joint OPEC and non-OPEC Producing Countries' Ministerial Meeting took place, leading to the signing of the Declaration of Cooperation (DoC). The DoC is an agreement signed in 2017 by the OPEC+ member countries. Its primary objective is to foster collaboration and promote stability in the global oil market. Providing a framework for OPEC and non-OPEC countries, the DoC aims to work together towards achieving a balanced and sustainable market. Through production adjustments, regular meetings, and information sharing, the signatories of the DoC strive to stabilize oil prices, prevent fluctuations, and ultimately benefit oil producers and consumers. The remarkable success achieved through this unprecedented level of cooperation has led to multiple extensions of the agreement, highlighting the significance of international collaboration and collective action in addressing the complexities of the oil market.[178][179]Future production
This section needs to be updated.(February 2021) |
Consumption in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has been abundantly pushed by automobile sector growth. The 1985–2003 oil glut even fueled the sales of low fuel economy vehicles in OECD countries. The 2008 economic crisis seems to have had some impact on the sales of such vehicles; still, in 2008 oil consumption showed a small increase.
In 2016 Goldman Sachs predicted lower demand for oil due to emerging economies concerns, especially China.[180] The BRICS (Brasil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) countries might also kick in, as China briefly had the largest automobile market in December 2009.[181] In the long term, uncertainties linger; the OPEC believes that the OECD countries will push low consumption policies at some point in the future; when that happens, it will definitely curb oil sales, and both OPEC and the Energy Information Administration (EIA) kept lowering their 2020 consumption estimates during the past five years.[182] A detailed review of International Energy Agency oil projections have revealed that revisions of world oil production, price and investments have been motivated by a combination of demand and supply factors.[183] All together, Non-OPEC conventional projections have been fairly stable the last 15 years, while downward revisions were mainly allocated to OPEC. Upward revisions are primarily a result of US tight oil.
Production will also face an increasingly complex situation; while OPEC countries still have large reserves at low production prices, newly found reservoirs often lead to higher prices; offshore giants such as
The expected availability of petroleum resources has always been around 35 years or even less since the start of the modern exploration. The oil constant, an insider pun in the German industry, refers to that effect.[185]
A growing number of divestment campaigns from major funds pushed by newer generations who question the sustainability of petroleum may hinder the financing of future oil prospection and production.[186]
Peak oil
Peak oil is a term applied to the projection that future petroleum production, whether for individual oil wells, entire oil fields, whole countries, or worldwide production, will eventually peak and then decline at a similar rate to the rate of increase before the peak as these reserves are exhausted.[citation needed][187] The peak of oil discoveries was in 1965, and oil production per year has surpassed oil discoveries every year since 1980.[188] However, this does not mean that potential oil production has surpassed oil demand.[clarification needed]
It is difficult to predict the oil peak in any given region, due to the lack of knowledge and/or transparency in the accounting of global oil reserves.[189] Based on available production data, proponents have previously predicted the peak for the world to be in the years 1989, 1995, or 1995–2000. Some of these predictions date from before the recession of the early 1980s, and the consequent lowering in global consumption, the effect of which was to delay the date of any peak by several years. Just as the 1971 U.S. peak in oil production was only clearly recognized after the fact, a peak in world production will be difficult to discern until production clearly drops off.[190]
In 2020, according to BP's Energy Outlook 2020, peak oil had been reached, due to the changing energy landscape coupled with the economic toll of the COVID-19 pandemic.
While there has been much focus historically on peak oil supply, the focus is increasingly shifting to peak demand as more countries seek to transition to renewable energy. The GeGaLo index of geopolitical gains and losses assesses how the geopolitical position of 156 countries may change if the world fully transitions to renewable energy resources. Former oil exporters are expected to lose power, while the positions of former oil importers and countries rich in renewable energy resources is expected to strengthen.[191]
Unconventional oil
This section needs to be updated.(May 2022) |
Hydrocarbons on other worlds
On
In fiction
See also
- Barrel of oil equivalent
- Filling station
- Gas/oil ratio
- Heavy metals
- International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals
- Lead poisoning
- List of oil exploration and production companies
- List of oil fields
- Manure-derived synthetic crude oil
- Oil burden
- Oil reserves in France
- Petroleum geology
- Petroleum politics
- Petrocurrency
- Thermal depolymerization
- Total petroleum hydrocarbon
- Waste oil
- Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir
Explanatory footnotes
- ^ 12.4 gigatonnes petroleum (and about 1 Gt CO2 eq from methane)/50 gigatonnes total
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- ^ Peak Oil Info and Strategies Archived June 17, 2012, at the Wayback Machine "The only uncertainty about peak oil is the time scale, which is difficult to predict accurately."
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- ^ U.S. Crude Oil Production Forecast – Analysis of Crude Types (PDF), Washington, DC: U.S. Energy Information Administration, May 28, 2015, archived (PDF) from the original on November 22, 2019, retrieved September 13, 2018,
U.S. oil production has grown rapidly in recent years. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) data, which reflect combined production of crude oil and lease condensate, show a rise from 5.6 million barrels per day (bbl/d) in 2011 to 7.5 million bbl/d in 2013, and a record 1.2 million bbl/d increase to 8.7 million bbl/d in 2014. Increasing production of light crude oil in low-permeability or tight resource formations in regions like the Bakken, Permian Basin, and Eagle Ford (often referred to as light tight oil) account for nearly all the net growth in U.S. crude oil production.
EIA's latest Short-Term Energy Outlook, issued in May 2015, reflects continued production growth in 2015 and 2016, albeit at a slower pace than in 2013 and 2014, with U.S. crude oil production in 2016 forecast to reach 9.2 million bbl/d. Beyond 2016, the Annual Energy Outlook 2015 (AEO2015) projects further production growth, although its pace and duration remains highly uncertain. - ^ "Titan Has More Oil Than Earth". Space.com. February 13, 2008. Retrieved February 13, 2008.
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The identification of organic molecules in rocks on the red planet does not necessarily point to life there, past or present, but does indicate that some of the building blocks were present.
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External links
- Global Fossil Infrastructure Tracker
- API – the trade association of the US oil industry. (American Petroleum Institute)
- U.S. Energy Information Administration
- Joint Organisations Data Initiative | Oil and Gas Data Transparency
- U.S. National Library of Medicine: Hazardous Substances Databank – Crude Oil
- The American Cyclopædia. 1879.
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- "A Short History of Petroleum", Scientific American, August 10, 1878, p. 85