Cuisine of Hawaii
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The cuisine of Hawaii incorporates five distinct styles of food, reflecting the diverse food history of settlement and immigration in the Hawaiian Islands.[a]
In the pre-contact period of
After
As pineapple and sugarcane plantations grew, so did the demand for labor, bringing many immigrant groups to the Islands between 1850 and 1930. Immigrant workers brought cuisines from
The introduction of new ethnic foods, such as Chinese Cantonese , combined with the existing indigenous, European and American foods in the plantation working environments and the local communities.
This blend of cuisines formed a "
History
Pre-contact period
When
For centuries taro, and the poi made from it, was the main staple of their diet, and it is still much loved today. In addition to taro the Polynesians brought sweet potatoes. These are believed to have come from Polynesian contact with the New World.[5]
The
Most
The early Hawaiian diet was diverse, and may have included as many as 130 different types of seafood and 230 types of sweet potatoes.[8] Some species of land and sea birds were consumed into extinction.[9]
At important occasions, a traditional feast, ‘aha‘aina, was held. When a woman was to have her first child, her husband started raising a pig for the ‘Aha‘aina Mawaewae feast that was celebrated for the birth of a child. Besides the pig, mullet, shrimp, crab, seaweeds and taro leaves were required for the feast.[11]
The modern name for such feasts,
Prior to cooking, pigs and dogs were killed by strangulation or by holding their nostrils shut, in order to conserve the animal's blood.[13] Meat was prepared by flattening out the whole eviscerated animal and broiling it over hot coals, or it was spitted on sticks.[13] Large pieces of meat, such as fowl, pigs and dogs, would be typically cooked in earth ovens, or spitted over a fire during ceremonial feasts.[14][13]
Hawaiian earth ovens, known as an
The intense heat from the hot rocks cooked food thoroughly—the quantity of food for several days could be cooked at once, taken out and eaten as needed, and the cover replaced to keep the remainder warm.
Men did all of the cooking, and food for women was cooked in a separate imu; afterwards men and women ate meals separately.[c] The ancient practice of cooking with the imu continues to this day, for special occasions.[17]
Post-contact period
In 1778, Captain
With no
In 1813,
Although grape vines were introduced by Captain Vancouver around 1792, Marin is credited with the first Hawaiian vineyard in 1815 and planting the now rare Mission grape variety.[22] Marin also brewed the first beer in 1812,[23] and planted the first coffee crop in 1817, but his plantings failed.[24] Marin, called "Manini" by the Hawaiians, experimented with planting oranges, limes, beans, cabbages, potatoes, peaches, melons, maize and lettuce.
By the late 19th century, pineapple and sugarcane plantations owned and run by American settlers took over much of Hawaii's land, and these two crops became the most important sources of revenue for the Hawaiian economy.[25]
Ethnic foods
As the plantations of the
The Chinese immigrants brought
The
The Japanese brought bento and sashimi, and, although many of their vegetable seeds would not grow in the climate of the islands, they succeeded in making tofu and soy sauce.[4] The homes of Japanese immigrants lacked ovens, so their cooking relied on frying, steaming, broiling, and simmering, leading to the popularization of tempura and noodle soups in Hawaii.[26]
By the early 20th century, the Japanese were the largest ethnic group and rice became the third-largest crop in the islands.[30]
Filipinos reached Hawaii in 1909, bringing peas and beans, the adobo style of vinegar and garlic dishes, choosing to boil, stew, broil, and fry food instead of baking, and eating sweet potatoes as a staple besides rice.[26]
Samoans arrived in 1919, building their earth ovens above ground instead of below like the imu, and made poi from fruit instead of taro.[26]
After the
Territorial period – statehood
The first restaurant in Honolulu was opened in 1849 by a Portuguese man named Peter Fernandez. Situated behind the Bishop & Co. bank, the establishment was known as the "eating house" and was followed by other restaurants, such as Leon Dejean's "Parisian Restaurant" at the corner of Hotel and Fort Streets.[32]
In 1872, the
The massive pineapple industry of Hawaii was born when the "Pineapple King",
In 1905,
Newspaper editorials of the time also questioned why locally-grown guavas were rotting on the ground while agribusiness was planting non-native pineapples in Hawaii. These concerns were not addressed until almost a century later, when the regional cuisine movement began encouraging the food industry to "grow local, buy local, and eat local."[34]
Since the 1970s, pineapples have been grown more cheaply in
From 1978 to 1988, chefs who came to Hawaii would avoid Hawaiian-grown ingredients like their European counterparts, preferring to ship everything in from the U.S. mainland, or as far away as Australia, New Zealand, and Europe.[35]
While eating out was not as prevalent as it is now, local eateries began to establish themselves starting in the 1960s.
Japanese-American baker
Hawaii regional cuisine
Hawaii regional cuisine refers to a style of cooking and the group of chefs who developed it and advocated for it as a distinct Hawaiian fusion style. The cuisine draws from local ingredients (including seafood, beef and tropical foods), and is a fusion of ethnic culinary influences.[39]
The cuisine style was developed by a group of twelve chefs: Sam Choy, Philippe Padovani, Roger Dikon, Gary Strehl, Roy Yamaguchi, Amy Ferguson Ota, Jean-Marie Josselin, George Mavrothalassitis, Beverly Gannon, Peter Merriman, Mark Ellman, and Alan Wong.[35]
The development of Hawaii regional cuisine was a coordinated effort to move away from ingredients shipped over long distances and preparations that copied continental recipes even when they were not well suited to conditions in Hawaii.[40][41] Rather, the group hoped to promote locally sourced ingredients in the hospitality industry while simultaneously informing the world about cuisine in Hawaii.
The goal of the group was to link local ranchers, fishermen and farmers with chefs and business in the hospitality and restaurant industry to develop Hawaii regional cuisine as a reflection of the community.
They took uninspired international and continental hotel cuisine based on imported products and recipes from the mainland and replaced them with dishes and a cuisine based on locally grown foods.[6]
This founding group of chefs worked to publish the 1994 cookbook by Janice Wald Henderson, The New Cuisine of Hawaii. These chefs also sponsored a cookbook to be sold for charity.[42]
Contemporary times
The continued popularity of Hawaii in the 21st century as a tourist destination has helped spawn Hawaiian-themed and Hawaiian cuisine restaurants in the contiguous United States such as Ono Hawaiian BBQ[43] and L&L Hawaiian Barbecue. Its popularity is also reaching Europe, with the restaurant POND Dalston opening in 2014 as first New Hawaiian Cuisine in the United Kingdom.[44] There are also many Hawaiian-made specialties such as Lilikoi açaí bowls from places like Ono Yo on the North Shore of Oahu. There are also branded items such as
Local eateries include the Zippy's chain. Foodland Hawaii is a grocery chain. There are also distinctive and historic business operations such as Kanemitsu Bakery, Helena's Hawaiian Food,[45] Common Ground Kauai,[46] Anna Miller's, Nisshodo Candy Store,[47] Maui Tacos and Waiʻoli Tea Room & Bakery at Salvation Army Waiʻoli Tea Room.
Roy Yamaguchi's Roy's and various cookbooks promoting Hawaiian regional cuisine have also helped popularize Hawaiian cuisine and Hawaiian fusion cuisine.
Ingredients
Vegetables, fruits and nuts
- Taro (Colocasia esculenta)—a popular and ancient plant that has been harvested for at least 30,000 years by indigenous people in New Guinea.[48] There are hundreds of varieties of taro, and the corm of the wetland variety makes the best poi,[4] as well as taro starch or flour. The dry-land variety has a crispy texture and is used for making taro chips. The smaller American variety is used for stewed dishes.[4]
- Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)
- Sweet potatoes
- Candle nut(Aleurites moluccana) or kukui—roasted kernels traditionally used as candles, main ingredient in the ancient Hawaiian condiment, 'inamona
- Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
- Polynesian arrowroot (Tacca leontopetaloides) or pia plant—cooked arrowroot is mixed with papaya, banana, or pumpkin in baked desserts; haupia, a Hawaiian coconut cream pudding, uses it as a thickener.
- Ti (laulau.
- Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus)
- Jicama
Spam
The
Spam is used in local dishes in a variety of ways, most commonly fried and served with rice. For breakfast, fried eggs are often served with spam.
It is added to saimin and fried rice, mashed with tofu, or served with cold sōmen or baked macaroni and cheese.
It is also used in chutney for pupus, in sandwiches with mayonnaise, or baked with guava jelly.[49] Spam musubi, a slice of fried Spam upon a bed of rice wrapped with a strip of nori, is a popular snack in Hawaii which found its way onto island sushi menus in the 1980s.[49]
Beef
In the 19th century, John Parker brought over Mexican cowboys to train the Hawaiians in
Cattle ranching grew rapidly for the next 100 years. In 1960, half of the land in Hawaii was devoted to ranching for beef export, but by 1990 the number had shrunk to 25 percent.
When beef is dried in the sun, a screened box is traditionally used to keep the meat from dust and flies. Dried meat could often be found as a relish or appetizer at a lū‘au.[52]
Fish and seafood
Ahi in particular has a long history, since ancient Hawaiians used it on long ocean voyages because it is well preserved when salted and dried.
The
Since first contact with Western and Asian cultures, scallions, chili peppers, and soy sauce have become common additions to it.[56]
Poke is different from sashimi, since the former is usually rough-cut and piled onto a plate, and can be made with less expensive pieces of fish.[57]
During the early 1970s, poke became an
Spices
Showing the island's Asian influence, common Asian spices include five-spice powder from China, wasabi and shoyu (soy sauce) from Japan, and bagoong from the Philippines.
Dishes
- Chicken long rice—chicken stewed with ginger, green onions, and rice vermicelli/mung bean thread
- Kalua pig—pulled pork, popularly cooked with cabbage
- Crack seed—Chinese-style preserved fruits
- leaf, but variations may include other proteins such as fish, chicken, and/or beef
- Loco moco—hamburger steak over rice, topped with brown gravy and eggs
- Lomi salmon—cubed salt-cured salmon combined with tomatoes and onion
- Luau–taro leaves stewed in coconut milk/cream.
- Malasada—chewy deep fried donut coated with sugar
- Manapua—A cha siu bao 2-3x larger, but other popular fillings include lup cheong, Okinawan sweet potatoes, chicken curry
- Mochi—various glutinous rice desserts/candy
- Göteborg sausage
- limpets, Cellana sandwicensis and Cellana exarata
- Pasteles
- Plate lunch (Hawaiian: pā mea ʻai)
- Poi—pureed taro corm
- Portuguese sweet bread
-
ahi poke
-
Wonton saimin
Drinks
- kava barshave experienced some popularity in Hawaii, with commercial kava plantations on Maui, Molokai, Kauai, and Oahu.
Alcoholic beverages
- Hawaiian tropical Blue Hawaii make use of rum. The rum is blended with a variety of tropical fruit juices and served with a decorative piece of fruit.[61]
- Okolehao is an old Hawaiian liquor made from the root of the ti plant.[61]
- Hawaiian wine is produced mostly on the island of Maui and the island of Hawaii.
- brewpub in the state, Kona Brewing Company. From 1901 to 1998, "Primo" was one of the most popular Hawaiian beers, and as of 2008, has returned to production, though it is now brewed in California.
- Historically, growlers are now available. The Maui Brewing Co.[62] is the largest Hawaiian packaged beer brewer.[23] (see also List of breweries in Hawaii).
See also
- List of American regional and fusion cuisines
- Oceanic cuisine
Notes
a. ^ Food historian Rachel Laudan (1996) on four distinct types of food plus a new, fifth type known as "Hawaiian Regional Cuisine" (HRC) that began in 1992. Because HRC was so new at the time of Laudan's book, she only briefly touches upon it: "I came to understand that what people in Hawaii eat is a mixture of four distinct kinds of food, introduced at distinct periods, but now all coexisting. The first three reflect the three diasporas that have terminated in Hawaii: the great marine diaspora of the Pacific Islanders that probably reached the Hawaiian Islands sometime in the third century A.D..; the European voyages of discovery that finally came upon the Islands in the late eighteenth century; and the long migration of the Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Koreans, Filipinos, and lately, Southeast Asians, most of whom came to work on the plantations. From these diverse traditions, a fourth, an East-West-Pacific food, is now being created, known in the Islands as Local Food.[63] [...] But there is another cuisine in the Islands that attracts attention, Hawaii Regional Cuisine...[it] was created by forces quite different from those that drive Local Food...although the forces creating Hawaii Regional Cuisine and Local Food were different, their current cross-fertilization can be nothing but mutually beneficial, creating a firm regional base for the cuisine of the restaurants and increasing sophistication for the cuisine of the home and the street."[64]
b. ^ The early settlement history of Hawaiʻi is not completely resolved. One theory is that the first Polynesians arrived in Hawaiʻi in the third century from the Marquesas and were followed by Tahitian settlers in 1300 AD who conquered the original inhabitants. Another is that there was an extended period of contact but not necessarily for a Tahitian invasion.[65]
c.
References
- ^ Orr, Kathy. "About Hawaiian Foods and Ancient Food Customs". Hawaii.edu.
- ^ Laudan 1996, pp. 173-175,
- ^ a b c Laudan 1996, p. 216.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Nenes 2007, p. 478.
- ^ "Gardening at the Edge: Documenting the Limits of Tropical Polynesian Kumara Horticulture in Southern New Zealand" Archived 2011-07-24 at the Wayback Machine, University of Canterbury
- ^ a b c d Nenes 2007, p. 479.
- ^ a b Brennan 2000, pp. 135–138.
- ^ Adams 2006, pp. 90–92.
- ^ Brennan 2000, p. 139.
- ^ a b c d e Kane 1998, p. 53.
- ^ Choy & Cook 2003, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Pukui & Elbert 1986, pp. 214.
- ^ a b c Schwabe 1979, p. 171.
- ^ Brennan 2000, pp. 3–5.
- ^ a b Choy & Cook 2003, p. 16.
- ^ Brennan 2000, pp. 271–273.
- ^ Corum 2000, p. 3.
- ^ HRHAS 1850, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Loomis 2006, p. 8.
- ^ a b c Barnes 1999, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Paul & Chen 2003, p. 253.
- ^ Miller, Bazore & Robbins 2002, p. 30.
- ^ a b Adams 2007, The Honolulu Advertiser
- ^ Miller, Bazore & Robbins 2002, pp. 25–26
- ^ a b Nenes 2007, p. 477.
- ^ a b c d e f Henderson 1994, p. 18.
- ^ Gabaccia 2000, p. 66.
- ^ Poet Paul Lee's commentary for this article, May 14, 2008
- ^ a b Laudan 1996, p. 134.
- ^ Laudan 1996, p. 5.
- ^ Corum 2000, p. 194,
- ^ Rea & Ting 1991, p. 30.
- ^ Rea & Ting 1991, p. 48.
- ^ Adams 2006, p. 10
- ^ a b Henderson 1994, p. xvi
- ^ "All About Okazuya In Hawaii". Onolicious Hawaiʻi. 3 September 2020.
- ^ Allen, Kevin (2 October 2018). "The Search for the Mysterious and Beloved Manapua Man". Hawaii Magazine.
- ^ Aki, Jacob Bryan (31 October 2019). "A Eulogy For Kalihi's Manapua Man: Thank You For Your Service". Honolulu Civil Beat.
- ^ Hawaii Regional Cuisine 2009 Lonely Planet Kauai page 247
- ^ Oahu Restaurants and Dining with Honolulu and Waikiki by Robert Carpenter, Cindy Carpenter page 35
- ^ Hawaii Restaurant Guide 2005 - Page 33 https://books.google.com/books?isbn=193175232X
- ^ Laudan 1996, p. 7.
- ^ "Home". Ono Hawaiian BBQ: Aloha in Every Bite. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
- ^ "London's first New Hawaiian restaurant is opening in Dalston | dalstonist". Archived from the original on 26 August 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
- ^ "Helena's Hawaiian Food | Serving great Hawaiian food since 1946!". www.helenashawaiianfood.com. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
- ^ "Home". commongroundkauai.com. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
- ^ "Nisshodo Candy Store". index.html. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
- ^ Brennan 2000, pp. 252–267.
- ^ a b c d e f Adams 2006, pp. 58–59.
- ^ Kulick & Meneley 2005, p. 187.
- ^ Miller, Latham & Flynn 1998, p. 83.
- ^ a b c Adams 2006, p. 98.
- ^ Choy & Cook 2003, p. 63.
- ^ a b c Nenes 2007, p. 480.
- ^ Laudan 1996, pp. 265–276.
- ^ Piianaia 2007, Waimea Gazette
- ^ Nenes 2007, p. 485.
- ^ Long 2003, pp. 116.
- ^ Top 10 Hawaiian food to try Archived 2022-10-31 at the Wayback Machine Fodor's
- ^ Brennan 2000, pp. 230–231.
- ^ a b Schindler & Schindler 1981, p. 14.
- ^ "Maui Brewing Company". Maui Brewing Company. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
- ^ Laudan 1996, p. 3.
- ^ Laudan 1996, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Kirch 2001, p. 80.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - Shintani, Terry (1999), Hawaii Diet, Atria, ISBN 0-671-02666-6.
- ISBN 0-393-30220-2.
External links
- Media related to Cuisine of Hawaii at Wikimedia Commons