Cult of personality
A cult of personality, or a cult of the leader,
Background
Throughout human history, monarchs and other
The spread of democratic and secular ideas in Europe and North America in the 18th and 19th centuries made it increasingly difficult for monarchs to preserve this aura, though Napoleon III,[2] and Queen Victoria[3] appreciated its perpetuation in their carte-de-visite portraits which proliferated, circulated and were collected in the 19th century.[4][5][6]
The subsequent development of mass media, such as radio, enabled political leaders to project a positive image of themselves onto the masses as never before. It was from these circumstances in the 20th century that the most notorious personality cults arose. Frequently, these cults are a form of
The advent of the Internet and the World Wide Web in the 21st century has renewed the personality cult phenomenon. Disinformation via social media platforms and the twenty-four hour news cycle has enabled the widespread dissemination and acceptance of deceptive information and propaganda.[8] As a result, personality cults have grown and remained popular in many places, corresponding with a marked rise in authoritarian government across the world.[9]
The term "cult of personality" likely appeared in English around 1800–1850, along with the French and German versions of the term.[10] It initially had no political connotations, but was instead closely related to the Romanticist "cult of genius".[10] The first known political use of the phrase appeared in a letter from Karl Marx to German political worker Wilhelm Blos dated to November 10, 1877:[10]
Neither of us cares a straw of popularity. Let me cite one proof of this: such was my aversion to the personality cult [orig. Personenkultus] that at the time of the International, when plagued by numerous moves ... to accord me public honor, I never allowed one of these to enter the domain of publicity ...[10][11]
Characteristics
There are various views about what constitutes a cult of personality in a leader. Historian Jan Plamper wrote that modern-day personality cults display five characteristics that set them apart from "their predecessors": The cults are secular and "anchored in popular sovereignty"; their objects are all males; they target the entire population, not only the well-to-do or just the ruling class; they use mass media; they exist where the mass media can be controlled enough to inhibit the introduction of "rival cults".[12]
In his 2013 paper, "What is character and why it really does matter", Thomas A. Wright stated, "The cult of personality phenomenon refers to the idealized, even god-like, public image of an individual consciously shaped and molded through constant propaganda and media exposure. As a result, one is able to manipulate others based entirely on the influence of public personality ... the cult of personality perspective focuses on the often shallow, external images that many public figures cultivate to create an idealized and heroic image."[13]
Adrian Teodor Popan defined a cult of personality as a "quantitatively exaggerated and qualitatively extravagant public demonstration of praise of the leader." He also identified three causal "necessary, but not sufficient, structural conditions, and a path-dependent chain of events which, together, lead to the cult formation: a particular combination of patrimonialism and clientelism, lack of dissidence, and systematic falsification pervading the society's culture."[14]
One underlying characteristic, as explained by John Pittman, is the nature of the cult of personalities to be a patriarch. The idea of the cult of personalities that coincides with the Marxist movements gains popular footing among the men in power with the idea that they would be the "fathers of the people".[according to whom?] By the end of the 1920s, the male features of the cults became more extreme. Pittman identifies that these features became roles including the "formal role for a [male] 'great leader' as a cultural focus of the apparatus of the regime: reliance on top-down 'administrative measures': and a pyramidal structure of authority" which was created by a single ideal.[15]
Role of mass media
The twentieth century brought technological advancements that made it possible for regimes to package propaganda in the form of radio broadcasts, films, and later content on the internet.
Writing in 2013, Thomas A. Wright observed that "[i]t is becoming evident that the charismatic leader, especially in politics, has increasingly become the product of media and self-exposure."[13] Focusing on the media in the United States, Robert N. Bellah added, "It is hard to determine the extent to which the media reflect the cult of personality in American politics and to what extent they have created it. Surely they did not create it all alone, but just as surely they have contributed to it. In any case, American politics is dominated by the personalities of political leaders to an extent rare in the modern world ... in the personalized politics of recent years the 'charisma' of the leader may be almost entirely a product of media exposure."[16]
Purpose
Often, a single leader became associated with this revolutionary transformation and came to be treated as a benevolent "guide" for the nation without whom the claimed transformation to a better future could not occur. Generally, this has been the justification for personality cults that arose in totalitarian societies, such as those of Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Kim Il Sung, Mao Zedong and Hafez al-Assad.
Admiration for Mao Zedong has remained widespread in China in spite of somewhat general knowledge of his actions. In December 2013, a Global Times poll revealed that over 85% of Chinese viewed Mao's achievements as outweighing his mistakes.[18]
Jan Plamper argues while Napoleon III made some innovations in France, it was Benito Mussolini in Italy in the 1920s who originated the model of dictator-as-cult-figure that was emulated by Hitler, Stalin and the others, using the propaganda powers of a totalitarian state.[19]
Historian David L. Hoffmann states "The Stalin cult was a central element of Stalinism, and as such it was one of the most salient features of Soviet rule ... Many scholars of Stalinism cite the cult as integral to Stalin's power or as evidence of Stalin's megalomania."[23]
In Latin America,
States and systems with personality cults
Argentina
During Perón's regime, schools were forced to read Evita's biography
Azerbaijan
China
Introduced in 1982, Article 10 of the Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party "forbids all forms of personality cult."[32]
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong's cult of personality was a prominent part of
During the period of
After the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and others launched the "Boluan Fanzheng" program which invalidated the Cultural Revolution and abandoned (and forbade) the use of a personality cult.[37][38][39] However, since Xi Jinping succeeded as the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 2012, the cult of personality has been promoted again in China.[40][41]
Xi Jinping
A cult of personality has been developing around Xi Jinping since he became General Secretary of the ruling Chinese Communist Party and the regime's paramount leader in 2012.[42][43][44]
Dominican Republic
Longtime dictator of the Dominican Republic Rafael Trujillo (ruled 1930-1961) was the center of a large personality cult. The nation's capital city, its highest peak, and a province were renamed for him. Statues of "El Jefe" were mass-produced and erected across the country, and bridges and public buildings were named in his honor. Automobile license plates included slogans such as "¡Viva Trujillo!" and "Año Del Benefactor De La Patria" (Year of the Benefactor of the Nation). An electric sign was erected in Ciudad Trujillo so that "Dios y Trujillo" could be seen at night as well as in the day. Eventually, even churches were required to post the slogan "Dios en cielo, Trujillo en tierra" (God in Heaven, Trujillo on Earth). As time went on, the order of the phrases was reversed (Trujillo on Earth, God in Heaven).[45]
Fascist Italy
Mussolini's military service in World War I and survival of failed assassination attempts were used to convey a mysterious aura around him.[48] Fascist propaganda stated that Mussolini's body had been pierced by shrapnel just like St. Sebastian had been pierced by arrows, the difference being that Mussolini had survived this ordeal.[48] Mussolini was also compared to St. Francis of Assisi, who had, like Mussolini, "suffered and sacrificed himself for others".[49]
The press were given instructions on what and what not to write about Mussolini.[46] Mussolini himself authorized which photographs of him were allowed to be published and rejected any photographs which made him appear weak or less prominent than he wanted to be portrayed as in a particular group.[50]
Italy's war against Ethiopia (1935–37) was portrayed in propaganda as a revival of the Roman Empire, with Mussolini as the first Roman emperor Augustus.[51] To improve his own image, as well as the image of Fascism in the Arab world, Mussolini declared himself to be the "Protector of Islam" during an official visit to Libya in 1937.[52]
India
Indira Gandhi has been described as having a cult of personality during her administration.[53]
Current Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi is often criticized for creating a personality cult around him.[54][55] Despite some setbacks and criticism,[56][57][58] Modi's charisma and popularity was a key factor that helped the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) return to power in the 2019 Parliament elections.[59] Shivraj Singh Chouhan, the chief minister of the country's second largest state, said in 2022, "He is superhuman and has traces of god in him."[60] Opposition often accused Modi for spreading propaganda using popular media such as movies, television and web series.[61][62][63][64]
Nazi Germany
Starting in the 1920s, during the early years of the
Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels cultivated an image of Hitler as a "heroic genius".[65] The myth also gave rise to the saying and concept, "If only the Führer knew". Germans thought that problems which they ascribed to the Nazi hierarchy would not have occurred if Hitler had been aware of the situation; thus Nazi bigwigs were blamed, and Hitler escaped criticism.[67]
British historian
Hitler stood for at least some things they [German people] admired, and for many had become the symbol and embodiment of the national revival which the Third Reich had in many respects been perceived to accomplish.[68]
During the early 1930s, the myth was given credence due to Hitler's perceived ability to revive the German economy during the Great Depression. However, Albert Speer wrote that by 1939, the myth was under threat and the Nazis had to organize cheering crowds to turn up to events. Speer wrote:
The shift in the mood of the population, the drooping morale which began to be felt throughout Germany in 1939, was evident in the necessity to organize cheering crowds where two years earlier Hitler had been able to count on spontaneity. What is more, he himself had meanwhile moved away from the admiring masses. He tended to be angry and impatient more often than in the past when, as still occasionally happened, a crowd on Wilhelmsplatz began clamoring for him to appear. Two years before he had often stepped out on the "historic balcony." Now he sometimes snapped at his adjutants when they came to him with the request that he show himself: "Stop bothering me with that!"[69]
The myth helped to unite the German people during World War II, especially against the Soviet Union and the Western Allies. During Hitler's early victories against Poland and Western Europe the myth was at its peak, but when it became obvious to most Germans that the war was lost then the myth was exposed and Hitler's popularity declined.
A report is given in the little Bavarian town of Markt Schellenberg on March 11, 1945:
When the leader of the
Sieg Heil for the Führer, it was returned neither by the Wehrmacht present, nor by the Volkssturm, nor by the spectators of the civilian population who had turned up. This silence of the masses ... probably reflects better than anything else, the attitudes of the population.[70]
North Korea
The cult of personality which surrounds
The pervasiveness and the extreme nature of North Korea's personality cult surpasses
Yakov Novichenko, a Soviet military officer who saved Kim Il Sung's life on 1 May 1946, is reported to also have developed a cult of personality around 1984. He is considered the only non-Korean to have developed a cult of personality there.[77]
Peru
Philippines
Ferdinand Marcos developed a cult of personality as a way of remaining President of the Philippines for 20 years,[78][79] in a way that political scientists[who?] have compared to other authoritarian and totalitarian leaders such as Joseph Stalin and Adolf Hitler,[80] but also to more contemporary dictators such as Suharto in Indonesia, Saddam Hussein in Iraq, and the Kim dynasty of North Korea.[81]: p114
The propaganda techniques used, either by himself or by others, to mythologize Ferdinand Marcos, began with local political machinations in Ilocos Norte while Ferdinand was still the young son of politician and Japanese collaborator Mariano Marcos,[82] and persist today in the efforts to revise the way Marcos is portrayed in Philippine history.[83] According to members of his administration, such as Adrian Cristobal, Marcos's intent was to project an image of himself "the only patron, the king" of Philippine society, which he still saw as a society of tribes."[84] Cristobal furthers that "Marcos and the First Lady wanted more than anything else [...] to be king and queen. They wished to shape the kingdom in their own image; [...] Marcos wanted to be able to say, 'L'État, c'est moi.'"[84] In some extreme cases where Marcos encouraged the formation of cults so that they could serve as a political weapon, Marcos came to be thought of as a God.[85]
These propaganda narratives and techniques include: using red scare tactics such as red-tagging to portray activists as communists and to exaggerate the threat represented by the Communist Party of the Philippines;[86]: "43" using martial law to take control of mass media and silence criticism;[87] the use of foreign-funded government development projects and construction projects as propaganda tools;[88] creating an entire propaganda framework around a "new society" in which he would rule under a system of "constitutional authoritarianism";[89][83][90] the perpetuation of hagiographical books and films;[91][92] the perpetuation of propaganda narratives about Marcos's activities during World War II, which have since been proven false by historical documents;[93][94] the creation of myths and stories around himself and his family;[95][96] and portrayals of himself in coinage and even a Mount Rushmore type monument;[97] among others."
Since Ferdinand Marcos's death, propaganda efforts have been made to whitewash his place in Philippine history,[98][99] an act of historical negationism[100] commonly referred to using the more popular term "historical revisionism."[101]Poland
Romania
Russia
Soviet Union
The first cult of personality to take shape in the USSR was Vladimir Lenin. Up until the dissolution of the USSR, Lenin's portrait and quotes were a ubiquitous part of the culture. However, during his lifetime, Lenin vehemently denounced any effort to build a cult of personality as in his eyes the cult of personality was antithetical to Marxism.[102] Despite this, members of the Communist Party further used Lenin's image as the all-knowing revolutionary who would liberate the proletariat. Lenin attempted to take action against this; however it was halted as Lenin was nearly assassinated in August 1918. His health would only further decline as he suffered numerous severe strokes with the worst in May 1922 and March 1923. In this state Lenin would lose the ability to walk and speak. It was during this time that the Communist Party began to promote the accomplishments of Lenin as the basis for his cult of personality, using him as an image of morality and revolutionary ideas.[15]
After Vladimir Lenin's death in 1924 and the exile of Leon Trotsky, Joseph Stalin came to embody the Soviet Union. Once Lenin's cult of personality had risen in power, creating enough influence, Stalin integrated his ideals into his own cult.[102] Unlike other cults of personalities, the Lenin and Stalin cults were not created to give the leaders power, they were created to give power and validation to the Communist Party. Stalin initially spoke out against the cult and other outrageous and false claims centered around him. However Stalin's attitude began to shift in favor of the cult in the 1930s and he began to encourage it following the Great Purge.[103] Seldom did Stalin object to state actions that furthered his cult of personality, however he did oppose some initiatives from Soviet propagandists. When Nikolai Yezhov proposed to rename Moscow to "Stalinodar", which translates to "gift of Stalin", Stalin objected.[104] To merge the idea of the Lenin and Stalin cults together, Stalin changed aspects of Lenin's life in the public's eye in order to place himself in power. This kept the two cults in a line that showed that both Lenin and Stalin had the same ideas and that Stalin was the rightful successor of Lenin, leading the USSR in the fashion Lenin would have.[102]
In December 1929, Stalin celebrated his 50th birthday which made Stalin become a prominent feature in the Soviet press.[105] The Soviet press used positive adjectives like, "Great", "Beloved", "Bold", "Wise", "Inspirer", and "Genius" to describe him.[106] Similarly, speeches that were given by people to the peasants described Stalin as "Our Best Collective Farm Worker", "Our Shockworker, Our Best of Best", and "Our Darling, Our Guiding Star".[106] By 1934, under Stalin's full control of the country, socialist realism became the endorsed method of art and literature.[103] Even under the communist regime, the Stalin cult of personality portrayed Stalin's leadership as patriarchy under the features laid out during Khrushchev's speech.[15] After 1936, the Soviet press described Stalin as the "Father of Nations".[107]
One key element of Soviet propaganda was interactions between Stalin and the children of the Soviet Union. He was often photographed with children of different ethnic backgrounds of the Soviet Union and was often photographed giving gifts to children. In 1935 the phrase, "Thank You, Dear Comrade Stalin, for a Happy Childhood!" started to appear above doorways at nurseries, orphanages, and schools; children also chanted this slogan at festivals.[108] Another key element of Soviet propaganda was imagery of Stalin and Lenin. In many posters, Stalin and Lenin were placed together to show their camaraderie and that their ideals were one. Throughout the 1930s, posters with both images were used as a way to bring the nation and the military together under the policies of the Communist Party during World War II, with the idea of Lenin as the father of the revolutionary ideas and Stalin as the disciple who would fulfill the communist ideals.[103] Stalin was also portrayed in numerous films produced by Mosfilm, which remained a Soviet-led company until the fall of the Soviet Union.
Syria
Syria's
One utilization of the personality cult has been to enable the Assad dynasty to downplay the rural
Turkey
In Turkey, founder of the Turkish Republic
At the exact time of Atatürk's death, on every 10 November, at 09:05, most vehicles and people in the country's streets pause for one minute in remembrance.: Atatürk aleyhine işlenen suçlar). Turkish government as of 2011 has filters in place to block websites deemed to contain materials insulting to his memory.
The start of Atatürk's cult of personality is placed in the 1920s when the first statues started being built.[117] The idea of Atatürk as the "father of the Turks" is ingrained in Turkish politics and politicians in that country are evaluated in relation to his cult of personality.[118] The persistence of the phenomenon of Atatürk's personality cult has become an area of deep interest to scholars.[119]
Atatürk impersonators are also seen around Turkey much after Atatürk's death to preserve what is called the "world's longest-running personality cult".[120]
In recent years there has been a growing cult of personality in modern Turkey around current President of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.
The cults created for the sultans and Erdoğan are kept alive by devout Muslims who oppose secular lifestyle and secularist ideas.United States
Venezuela
See also
- Authoritarian personality
- Big Brother (Nineteen Eighty-Four)
- Bolivarianism
- Bolsonarism
- Bonapartism
- Bread and circuses
- Celebrity worship syndrome
- Charismatic authority
- Chavismo
- Communism
- Cult of Personality (song)
- Dictatorship
- Erdoğanism
- Fascism
- Feudalism
- Fujimorism
- Gandhism
- God complex
- Great man theory
- Halo effect
- Horn effect
- Hoxhaism
- Imperial cult
- Kemalism
- Khomeinism
- Kirchnerism
- Leaderism
- Leninism
- Lèse-majesté
- List of cults of personality
- List of messiah claimants
- Maoism
- Marxism–Leninism
- Monarchy
- Narcissism
- Narcissistic leadership
- Nasserism
- Nazism
- Peronism
- Personality and image of Queen Elizabeth II
- Pinochetism
- Putinism
- Supreme leader
- Sycophancy
- Titoism
- Trotskyism
- Trumpism
References
- Notes
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- ISBN 1558504443.
- ISBN 9780415441636.
- ^ "İhbar Web". İhbar Web. Retrieved September 17, 2013.
- ISBN 9781860644269. Retrieved June 21, 2013.
...and in Ataturk's case the cult of personality began early with ...
- ISBN 9780521888783. Retrieved June 21, 2013.
In other works there is a deeply internalized notion of Ataturk as the "father" of the Turks, and all politicians are very much measured against his cult of personality.
- ISBN 9780300152609. Retrieved June 21, 2013.
- ^ Alexander Christie-Miller (April 20, 2013). "Lookalike keeps alive the cult of Ataturk". The Times of London.
- Bibliography
- Bosworth, Richard J. B. (2006). Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Dictatorship, 1915–1945. Penguin Adult. ISBN 978-0141012919.
- Bosworth, Richard J. B. (2014). Mussolini. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1849660242.
- Brendon, Piers (2016). The Dark Valley. Random House. ISBN 978-1446496329.
- Falasca-Zamponi, Simonetta (2000). Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520226777.
- Gallo, Max (1973). Mussolini's Italy; Twenty Years of the Fascist Era. Macmillan.
- Gill, Graeme (1980). "The Soviet Leader Cult: Reflections on the Structure of Leadership in the Soviet Union". British Journal of Political Science. 10 (167): 167–186. S2CID 155049543.
- Gundle, Stephen; Duggan, Christopher; Pieri, Giuliana (2015). The cult of the Duce: Mussolini and the Italians. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1526101419.
- Gunther, John (1936). Inside Europe. Harper & brothers.
- Hamilton, Alastair (1973). Appeal of Fascism. Harper Mass Market Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0380010257.
- Kelly, Catriona (2005). "Riding the Magic Carpet: Children and Leader Cult in the Stalin Era". The Slavic and East European Journal. 49 (2): 199–224. JSTOR 20058260.
- Kershaw, Ian (1998). The 'Hitler Myth'. Image and Reality in the Third Reich.
- Kershaw, Ian (2001). Hitler 1936–1945: Nemesis. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0141925813.
- Plamper, Jan (2012). The Stalin Cult: A Study in the Alchemy of Power. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300169522.
- Speer, Albert (2009). Inside The Third Reich. Orion. ISBN 978-1842127353.
- Williams, Manuela (2006). Mussolini's Propaganda Abroad: Subversion in the Mediterranean and the Middle East, 1935–1940. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0203004777.
- Further reading
- Apor, Balázs; ISBN 1403934436.
- Cohen, Yves (2007). "The cult of number one in an age of leaders". Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History. 8 (3): 597–634. S2CID 144730066. Retrieved September 7, 2018.
- Dikötter, Frank (2020). Dictators: The Cult of Personality in the Twentieth Century. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1526626981.
- Gill, Graeme (1984). "Personality cult, political culture and party structure". Studies in Comparative Communism. 17 (2): 111–121. .
- Melograni, Piero (1976). "The Cult of the Duce in Mussolini's Italy" (PDF). Journal of Contemporary History. 11 (4): 221–237. S2CID 150787157. Retrieved September 7, 2018.
- Morgan, Kevin (2017). International Communism and the Cult of the Individual Leaders, Tribunes and Martyrs under Lenin and Stalin. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1349953370.
- Paltiel, Jeremy (1983). "The Cult of Personality: Some Comparative Reflections on Political Culture in Leninist Regimes". Studies in Comparative Communism. 16 (1–2): 49–64. .
- Petrone, Karen (2004). "Cult of Personality". In Millar, James R. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Russian History. Vol. 1. pp. 348–350. ISBN 978-0028656946.
- Polese, Abel; Horák, Slavomir (2015). "A tale of two presidents: personality cult and symbolic nation-building in Turkmenistan". Nationalities Papers. 43 (3): 457–478. S2CID 142510277.
- Rutland, P. (2011). "Cult of Personality". In ISBN 978-1608712434.
- Vassilev, Rossen (2008). "Cult of Personality". In ISBN 978-0028659657.
External links
- Why Dictators Love Kitsch by Eric Gibson, The Wall Street Journal, August 10, 2009