Cultural references to chickens

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Rooster

There are numerous cultural references to chickens in

religious worship practices.[1]

Roosters are sometimes used for a divination practice called Alectryomancy, a Latin phrase combining "rooster" and "divination". Sacrificing a sacred rooster, or Alectormancy, often takes place during a ritual cockfight,[2] which is used as a form of communication with the gods.

Ancient Greece and Rome

For the use of poultry and eggs in the kitchens of ancient Rome, see Ancient Roman cuisine.
Abraxas depicted with the head of a chicken

In Greek mythology, Alectryon was the guard of Ares, waiting beside his door and alerting him if anyone came near while he was sleeping with Aphrodite, wife of Hephaestus. However, Alectryon once fell asleep, and Helios, the sun, saw the two lovers and alerted Hephaestus. In anger over Alectryon's incompetence, Ares turned Alectryon into a rooster for his disobedience, thus fulfilling his promise to Ares for eternity.[3][4] The rooster was one of Helios' sacred animals.[5]

In Ancient Greece, chickens were not normally used for sacrifices, perhaps because they were still considered exotic animals. Due to its valor, the cock is often depicted as an attribute of Ares, Heracles, and Athena. The alleged last words of Socrates, as recounted by Plato, were: "Crito, I owe a cock to Asclepius; will you remember to pay the debt?", signifying that death was a cure for the illness of life.

The term "Persian bird" for the rooster appears to have been given by the Greeks after Persian contact because of their great importance and religious use among Persians.[6]

The Greeks believed that even lions were afraid of roosters. Several of Aesop's Fables reference this belief. The poet Cratinus (mid-5th century BC, according to the later Greek author Athenaeus) calls the chicken "the Persian alarm". In Aristophanes's comedy The Birds (414 BC) a chicken is called "the Median bird", which points to an introduction from the East. Pictures of chickens are found on Greek red figure and black-figure pottery.

In Ancient Greece, chickens were still rare and were rather prestigious food for symposia.[7] Delos seems to have been a center of chicken breeding (Columella, De Re Rustica 8.3.4). "About 3200 BC chickens were common in Sindh. After the attacks of the Aria people, these fowls spread from Sindh to Balakh and Iran. During attacks and wars between Iranians and Greeks, the chickens of Hellanic breed came to Iran and about 1000 BC Hellenic chickens came into Sindh through Medan".[8]

The mythological basilisk or cockatrice is depicted as a reptile-like creature with the upper body of a rooster.[9][10] Abraxas, a figure in Gnosticism, is portrayed similarly as well.[11]

The Romans used chickens as oracles, both when flying ("ex avibus", Augury) and when feeding ("auspicium ex tripudiis", Alectryomancy). The hen gave a favourable omen ("auspicium ratum"), when appearing from the left (Cic., de Div. ii.26), like the crow and the owl.

According to

auspice, and at one point any bird could perform the tripudium.[12] Normally only chickens were consulted. The chickens were cared for by the pullarius, who fed them pulses or a special kind of cake when an augury was needed. If the chickens stayed in their cage, made noises, beat their wings, or flew away, the omen was bad; if they ate, the omen was good.[13]

In 249 BC, the Roman general Publius Claudius Pulcher had his sacred chickens[14] thrown overboard when they refused to feed before the battle of Drepana, saying "If they won't eat, perhaps they will drink." He promptly lost the battle against the Carthaginians, and was heavily fined for impiety back in Rome.[15]

In 162 BC, the Lex Faunia forbade fattening hens on grain, a measure enacted to reduce grain demand.[16] To get around this, the Romans castrated roosters (capon), which resulted in a doubling of size, despite a law in Rome forbidding the consumption of fattened chickens. [16]: 305  According to Aldrovandi, capons were produced by burning "the hind part of the bowels, or loins or spurs"[17] with a hot iron. Fattening chickens with bread soaked in milk was thought to give especially delicious results. The Roman gourmet Apicius offers 17 recipes for chicken, mainly boiled chicken with sauce. All parts of the animal are used: the recipes include the stomach, liver, testicles, and even the pygostyle.

The Roman author Columella advises on chicken breeding in the eighth book of his treatise, De Re Rustica (On Agriculture). He commented on various breeds of chicken and their uses in different functions, ideal practices of flock keeping, construction of chicken coops, what feed to use, and when to slaughter.

East Asia

The

to have a rooster fight another rooster was the same in substance as the fire-renewal custom, and cockfighting was instituted as a springtime ritual.[18] The Hanshi festival was eventually moved to coincide with the Qingming Festival (also called the Pure Brightness Festival), retaining the rooster and cockfights.[19]

Many roosters are found around

Shinto shrines, with the rooster being associated with the sun goddess Amaterasu.[20]

Southeast Asia

Sacred Buddha amulet blessed in Wat Wangtakian Temple, Jorrakaepuek District, Kanjanaburee, Thailand
The painting Đại cát of the Đông Hồ painting line is often hung in the house by Vietnamese people to pray for good luck

Indigenous beliefs on the veneration of spirits and deities still remain strong in

Baalim
.

In East Timor the cock is admired for courage and perseverance. Man's courage is often compared with that of the cock, and cockfights are a regular occurrence. Many tais designs include the cock.[22]

In

sacred cockfight.[23] In several myths, the cock has the power to revive the dead or to make a wish come true.[24] Kaharingan, an animist folk religion of the Iban branch of the Dayak people, includes the belief in a deity associated with the rooster and cockfighting, and the belief that humans become the fighting cocks of god. The Iban further believe that the rooster and cockfight was introduced to them by god.[citation needed] Gawai Dayak, a festival of the Dayaks, includes the cockfight and the waving of a rooster over offerings while asking for guidance and blessings; the rooster is then sacrificed.[25] The Tiwah festival involves the sacrifice of animals such as chickens as offerings to the Supreme God.[citation needed
]

ancestor worshipers with beliefs influenced by Taoism, Buddhism and Christianity. At the Miao New Year, there may be domestic animal sacrifices or cockfights.[26] The Hmong of Southeast Guizhou cover the rooster with a piece of red cloth, then hold it up to worship and sacrifice. In Hmong Shamanism, a shaman may use a rooster in a religious ceremony; it is said that the rooster shields the shaman from evil spirits, as the evil spirits see only the rooster's spirit. In a 2010 trial of a Sheboygan Wisconsin Hmong charged with staging a cockfight, it was stated that the roosters were "kept for both food and religious purposes",[27] resulting in an acquittal.[28] In Vietnam fighting roosters or fighting cocks are colloquially called "sacred chickens".[29]

The

Buddha with cocks in fighting stance. Cocks are also interpreted as a symbol of greed in Tibetan Buddhist murals
.

North America

Chickens are ritually sacrificed in the Santería religion which originated in Cuba and developed from native Caribbean culture, Catholicism, and the Yoruba religion of West Africa.[32]

South Asia

The Khasi people of Northeast India believe the rooster is sacrificed as a substitute for humans, as it's thought that the cock "bears the sins of the man." in sacrifice.[33]

West Godavari and the Sankranti festival.[citation needed
]

Hinduism

Yaudheyas
200 BCE

Surapadman was split into two and the halves turned into the peacock (his mount) and the rooster in his flag. Balinese Hinduism includes the religious belief of Tabuh Rah, a religious cockfight where a rooster is used to fight against another rooster. The altar and deity Ida Ratu Saung may be seen with a fighting cock in his hand[34] with the spilling of blood serving as a purification rite to appease the evil spirits. Ritual fights usually occur outside the temple and follow an ancient and complex ritual set out in the sacred lontar manuscripts.[35]

Likewise, a popular Hindu ritual form of worship from

Tulunadu.[36] Kozhi kettu organized as part of religious events are permitted.[37]

Africa

Yoruba carved and painted wood tribal statue of a "cock fight"

alusi of the Igbo people in southeastern Nigeria
, requires consecration with offerings before religious use, which include the sacrificial blood of a rooster or ram for the spirit.

Europe

In many Central European folk tales, the devil is believed to flee at the first crowing of a rooster.

In modern Greece, when laying the foundation of a new building, it is customary to sacrifice a cock, ram, or lamb, and let its blood flow on the stone of the foundation.[39]

The

Celtic reconstructionism.[41][42]

A black cockerel was believed in

Medieval Europe to be a symbol of witchcraft along with the black cat.[43] A cockatrice is an English mythological creature said to have been born from an egg laid by a rooster and hatched by a serpent, and which could be killed by a rooster's call.[44]

Norse mythology

In

völva—a Norse seeress—recites information to the wisdom-seeking god Odin
. In stanza 41, the völva says:

Old Norse:

Fylliz fiǫrvi
feigra manna,
rýðr ragna siǫt
rauðom dreyra.
Svǫrt verða sólskin
of sumor eptir,
veðr ǫll válynd.
Vitoð ér enn, eða hvat?[45]

English:

It sates itself on the life-blood
of fated men,
paints red the powers' homes
with crimson gore.
Black become the sun's beams
in the summers that follow,
weathers all treacherous.
Do you still seek to know? And what?[45]

The völva then describes three roosters crowing: In stanza 42, the

Freya by Norse peoples.[50] The three stars of Orion's belt were called the Distaff of Frigg.[51]

Middle East

holy
within that religious schema.
Etruscan askos in the form of a rooster, 4th century B.C., Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

In Iran, during the Kianian Period, from about 2000 BC to about 700 BC, the cock was a highly sacred animal; after Persian contact, the Greeks began to refer to the cock as the "Persian bird" due to its significance in Persian culture.[52]

Astrology and the constellations comprising the zodiac originated in ancient Babylonia, modern day Iraq. The lore of the True Shepherd of Anu (SIPA.ZI.AN.NA) – Orion and his accompanying animal symbol, the Rooster, with both representing the herald of the gods, being their divinely ordained role in communicating messages of the gods.[citation needed] "The Heavenly Shepherd" or "True Shepherd of Anu" – Anu being the chief god of the heavenly realms.[53] On the star map, the figure of the Rooster was shown below and behind the figure of the True Shepherd, both representing the herald of the gods, in his bird and human forms respectively.[54]

Persians whose name means, "a dunghill cock".[54][55] According to astrological mythology, Nergal represented the planet Mars, the emblem of violence and bloodshed.[56] The Samaritans or 'Cutheans' also worshiped the Mesopotamian deity Nergal.[57][58]

Islam

The understanding of the divine spiritual endowment of the rooster within

Abrahamic religion in one of the six canonical hadith collections of Sunni Islam, stating that of "when you hear the crowing of cocks, ask for Allah's Blessings for they have seen an angel".[59]

Zoroastrianism

evil spirits".[61]

Judaism

Judaism includes many references to roosters as important animals. The

Levites, and Israelites to their duties. The Hebrew gever was used to mean a "rooster" in addition to the meaning of "man, strong man".[64]

The Talmud provides the statement: "Had the Torah not been given to us, we would have learned modesty from cats, honest toil from ants, chastity from doves and gallantry from cocks"[65] (Jonathan Ben Nappaha. Talmud: Erubin 100b), which may be understood as the gallantry of cocks being taken in a religious context of a "girt one of the loins" (Young's Literal Translation) which is to be "stately in his stride" or "move with stately bearing" as within the Book of Proverbs 30:29-31. Saadia Gaon identifies the definitive trait of a "cock girded about the loins" within Proverbs 30:31(Douay–Rheims Bible) as "the honesty of their behavior and their success",[66] identifying a spiritual purpose and use within Judaeo-Christian traditions. The Hebrew term zarzir, which means "girt"; "that which is girt in the loins" (BDB 267 s.v.) is recognized in the Targum as well as the Chaldaic, Syriac, Arabic, LXX, and Vulgate, all referencing the fighting rooster or fighting cock as a religious vessel. The ancient Hebrew versions identified the Hebrew "a girt one of the loins" of Proverbs 30:31 as a rooster, "which most of the old translations and Rabbis understood to be a fighting cock",[67] the Arabic sarsar or sirsir being an onomatopoeia for rooster (alektor) as the Hebrew zarzir of Proverbs 30:31. "Rooster bones were identified at Lachish dating to early Iron II",[68] but even earlier is not to be ruled out, as "for Palestine, the earliest chicken bones are present in Iron Age I strata in Lachish and Tell Hasben".[69]

The rooster has also been placed within the

II Kings
25:23, Jaazaniah the Maschathit was an official under Gedalish at Mizpah.

Hebrew word geber (Gever)[75]
meaning both "man" and "rooster", the rooster may act or serve as a palpable substitute as a religious vessel in place of the man. The practice has also been as a custom of the Persian Jews.

Christianity

Good Shepherd fresco from the Catacombs of San Callisto with the cock at His right hand

In the New Testament, Jesus prophesied the betrayal by Peter: "Jesus answered, 'I tell you, Peter, before the rooster crows today, you will deny three times that you know me.'"[76] It happened,[77] and Peter cried bitterly. Earlier, Jesus compares himself to a mother hen when talking about Jerusalem: "O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, you who kill the prophets and stone those sent to you, how often I have longed to gather your children together, as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, but you were not willing."[78]

Within the Christian "Tomb of the Cocks" in

sacred cockfight with the understanding of striving for resurrection and eternal life in Christianity. This sacred subject is carved on early Christian tombs, where the sepulchral carvings have an important purpose, "a faithful wish for immortality, with the victory of the cock and his supporting genius analogous to the hope of resurrection, the victory of the soul over death".[80]

Reverend Dr.

liturgical sources and known as the "Queen of the Catacombs" in antiquity) reproduced in Giovanni Gaetano Bottari's folio of 1754, where the Good Shepherd is depicted as feeding the lambs, with a crowing cock on His right and left hand.[83]

Similar illustrations of cocks in fighting stance

Papal enactment of the ninth century ordered the figure of the cock to be placed on every church steeple.[92]

It is known that

Mark
.

In the

sacred architecture
.

In art and literature

Jeunes Grecs faisant battre des coqs, by Jean-Léon Gérôme
, 1846
Hanengevecht in Vlaanderen, by Emile Claus, 1882

Visual depictions of

Jeunes Grecs faisant battre des coqs (1846), a painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme; Vainqueur au combat de coqs (1864) a bronze statue by Alexandre Falguière; the painting Hanengevecht in Vlaanderen (1882) by Emile Claus; and some works by Robin Philipson
.

Abraham Valdelomar's 1918 tale El Caballero Carmelo depicts a cockfight between the protagonist, a cock named Carmelo, and his rival Ajiseco from a child's perspective, who considered this bird as a heroic member of his family. Nathanael West's 1939 novel The Day of the Locust includes a detailed and graphic cockfighting scene, as does the Alex Haley novel Roots: The Saga of an American Family and the miniseries based on it.

In

One Hundred Years Of Solitude, cockfighting is outlawed in the town of Macondo after the patriarch of the Buendia family murders his cockfighting rival and is haunted by the man's ghost.[98] Cockfighting is central to García Marquez's 1965 novella No One Writes to the Colonel
in which the unnamed protagonist sells all of his belongings to feed his murdered son's gamecock.

Charles Willeford's Cockfighter (1962) gives a detailed account of the protagonist's life as a 'cocker'. The book On the Border: Portraits of America's Southwestern Frontier describes a cockfight at a fiesta.[99] In Lasana M. Sekou’s 1997 novella Brotherhood of the Spurs, the title story of his James Michener Fellow collection of short stories, a cockfight in the 1960s is central to uniting the people of Sint Maarten during the partition by the French and Dutch in the Caribbean in 1648.[100]

Emblems

The flag of Wallonia features a red rooster
Rooster on the coat of arms of Tomilino (Moscow Oblast, Russia)

The cockerel was already of symbolic importance in

disputed – discuss] Today, the Gallic rooster is an emblem of France. The rooster is also an emblem of Wallonia and the Turkish city of Denizli
.

Among

Roman deities, Priapus was sometimes represented as a cock, with its beak as a phallus and its wattles as testicles. The cock or a man with rooster attributes was similarly used as an erotic symbol, Priapus Gallinaceus.[101]

The

Latin: He rouses us with song).[102] A fighting cockerel on a ball is the symbol of Tottenham Hotspur Football Club
. The cockerel wears a pair of spurs, a reference to the club's nickname. It has been present on their crest and shield since 1901.

The cockerel is the emblem of the Turkish sports club

Chianti Classico is a black rooster.[104]

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