Culture of Asia

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

"Asian arts" redirects here. For more on Asian visual arts, see History of Asian art.
For the journal, see Asian Culture (journal).

Map of Asia
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Culture of Asia

The culture of Asia encompasses the collective and diverse customs and traditions of art, architecture, music, literature, lifestyle, philosophy, food, politics and religion that have been practiced and maintained by the numerous

ethnic groups of the continent of Asia since prehistory. Identification of a specific culture of Asia or universal elements among the colossal diversity that has emanated from multiple cultural spheres and three of the four ancient River valley civilizations is complicated. However, the continent is commonly divided into six geographic sub-regions, that are characterized by perceivable commonalities, like culture, religion, language and relative ethnic homogeneity. These regions are Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and West Asia.[1]

As the largest, most populous continent and rich in resources, Asia is home to several of the world's oldest civilizations, that produced the majority of the great religious systems, the oldest known recorded myths and codices on ethics and morality.[2][3]

However, Asia's enormous size separates the various civilizations by great distances and hostile environments, such as deserts and mountain ranges. Yet by challenging and overcoming these distances, trade and commerce gradually developed a truly universal, Pan-Asian character. Inter-regional trade was the driving and cohesive force, by which cultural elements and ideas spread to the various sub-regions, via the vast road network and the many sea routes.[4]

History

Main article: History of Asia
See also: Demographics of Asia

Multiple cultural regions

Asia's various modern cultural and religious spheres correspond roughly with the principal centers of civilization.

West Asia (or Southwest Asia as

Hilly flanks is also the birthplace of his definition of the west (which groups the Middle East with Europe). According to his definition this would make Asia the origin of western culture.[6]
Not everybody agrees with him though.

Indus Valley civilisation.[7]

The

East Asian cultural sphere developed from the Yellow River civilization.[8] Southeast Asia's migration waves of more varied ethnic groups are relatively recent. Commercial interaction with South Asia eventually lead to the adoption of culture from India and China (including Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism). The region later absorbed influences from Islam as well, and the Malays are currently the largest Islamic population in the world.[9][10] North Asia's (otherwise known as Siberia) harsh climate and unfavorable soil proved to be unsuited to permanently support large urban settlements and only permits the presence of a pastoral and nomadic population, spread over large areas. Nonetheless, North Asian religious and spiritual traditions eventually diffused into more comprehensive systems such as Tibetan Buddhism that developed its own unique characteristics (e.g. Mongolian Buddhism). For these reasons it is becoming more unconventional to separate it from the rest of East Asian cultures.[11]

Central Asia has also absorbed influences from both West Asia and East Asia (including Persia and Mongolia), making it another melting pot of cultures.

The cultural spheres are not mutually disjoint and can even overlap, representing the innate diversity and syncretism of human cultures and historical influences.

East Asia

Main articles:
East Asian cultural sphere and East Asia
East Asian cultural sphere
A Confucian ritual ceremony in Jeju, South Korea

The term

East Asian cultural sphere#historical linguistics
).

Historically, China occupied the prominent, central role in East Asia for a long time in recorded history, as it "deeply influenced the culture of the peripheral countries and also drew them into a "

Imperial Chinese Tributary System is based on the Confucian religious and philosophical idea of submission to celestial harmony was also recognized by nations beyond, in Southeast Asia in particular. Ceremonies were presided over by the Emperor of China as the Son of Heaven and curator of the Mandate of Heaven.[15][16] In elaborate ceremonies both, the tributary state and the various Chinese dynasties agreed to mutually favorable economic co-operation and beneficial security policies.[17][18]

Some of defining East Asian cultural characteristics are the Chinese language and traditional writings systems of

Chinese script is one of the oldest continuously used writing systems in the world, and has been a major unifying force and medium for conveying Chinese culture in East Asia. Classical Chinese was the literary language of elites and bureaucrats. Historically used throughout the region, it is still in use by Chinese diaspora communities around the world, as well as in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and pockets of Southeast Asia.[24][25]

However, as Chinese writing concepts were passed on to Korea, Japan and Vietnam, these nations developed their own characteristic writing systems to complement

Hán-Nôm (a type of writing that combines both Chữ Hán and Chữ Nôm) as well. Sino cognates compose a vast majority of the vocabulary of these languages (see Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary, Sino-Korean vocabulary, Sino-Japanese vocabulary). In the 20th century, China has also re-borrowed terms from Japan to represent western concepts known as Wasei-kango.[26]

Apart from the unifying influence of

Đông Sơn culture.[27][28][29][30] Modern research has also focused on the several nations pivotal role on the collective body of East Asian Buddhism and the Korean influence on Japanese culture as well as Japanese influence on Korean culture.[31][32][33][34]

South Asia

Main article:
Ethnic groups of South Asia
Language families in South Asia
Traditional Rajasthani garments from Jaipur, Rajasthan

Evidence of

Indus Valley civilisation or Harappan Civilisation it thrived for almost 2.000 years until the onset of the Vedic period (c. 1500 – c. 600 B.C.).[35][36] The great significance of the Vedic texts (that don't mention cities or urban life) for South Asian culture, their impact on family, societal organisation, religion, morale, literature etc. has never been contested. The Indus Valley Civilisation on the other hand has only come to light by means of 20th century archaeology. Scholars, who employ several periodization models argue over whether South Asian tradition is consciously committed to the Harappan culture.[37][38]

Declining climatic conditions, (

Indo-Aryan migration) are regarded as to have caused the fatal disruption of the Harappa culture, that was superseded by the rural Vedic culture.[39][40]

Main articles:
Indo-Aryans, Indo-Aryan migrations, and Vedic period

Following the Indo-Aryan settlement in the

ethic conformity.[42]

See also: History of Hinduism § Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-1200 CE)

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism are major religions of South Asia. After a long and complex history of cosmological and religious development, adoption and decline, the Hindu-synthesis[43] and the late but thorough introduction of Islam about 80% of modern-day Indians and Nepalis identify as Hindus.[44] In Sri Lanka and Bhutan most people adhere to various forms of Buddhism.[45] Islam is the predominant religion in Afghanistan, the Maldives (99%), Pakistan (96%) and Bangladesh (90%).[46][47][48]

Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore
, Pakistan

Pallava alphabet, certain cultural traditions, and aspects of its cuisine, for example, show South Indian influences. Cultural festivals, aspects of its cuisine and Theravada Buddhism, the dominant religion in Sri Lanka, show a Southeast Asian affinity.[53]

Dari
.

Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia divides into

West Malaysia, and Maritime Southeast Asia, that includes Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Christmas Island.[54][55] At the crossroads of the Indian and East Asian maritime trade routes since around 500 B.C., the region has been greatly influenced by the culture of India and China. The most of the influence of India came in the era of the Chola dynasty spreading Tamil and Hindu cultures across present south east Asian countries and even expanding and establishing Hindu kingdoms in the region. The term Indianised Kingdoms is a designation for numerous Southeast Asian political units, that had to a varying degree adopted most aspects of India's statecraft, administration, art, epigraphy, writing and architecture. The religions Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam gradually diffused into local cosmology. Nonetheless, the Southeast Asian nations have very diversely adapted to these cultural stimuli and evolved their distinct sophisticated expression in lifestyle, the visual arts and most notably in architectural accomplishments, such as Angkor Wat in Cambodia and Borobudur in Indonesia.[56][57]

Angkor Wat, Khmer Empire

Buddhist culture has a lasting and significant impact in mainland Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam); most Buddhists in Indochina practice

Catholicism) as the dominant religion. East Timor also demonstrates Portuguese
influence through colonialism, as is also a predominantly Christian nation.

A common feature found around the region are

Islamic
literature.

West Asia

Grand Mosque in Kuwait City
, one of the largest mosques in the region

Abrahamic faiths. In addition, the Jewish origins of Christianity, along with the many cultural contributions from both Jews and Arabs in Europe, meant that West Asian culture had left a lasting impact on Western civilization as well. Other indigenous West Asian religions include Zoroastrianism, Yazidism, Alevism, Druze and the Baháʼí Faith
.

Today, almost 93% of West Asia's inhabitants are Muslim and is characterized by

Muscat have developed on the coastal lands of the Mediterranean Sea, the Persian Gulf and at the periphery of the Arabian Desert.[59]

West Asian cuisine is immensely rich and diverse. The literature is also immensely rich with Arabic, Jewish, Persian, and Turkish dominating.

Central Asia

Central Asia, in between the Caspian Sea and East Asia, envelops five former

Sarmatians. As some Central Asian areas have been inhabited by nomadic people, numerous urban centers have developed in a distinct local character.[60][61]

The Russian Znamensky Cathedral in Tyumen built in 1768

This region was mainly dominated by Russians in the Soviet era and even after its dissolution in 1991. Even now the region is dominated by them.

North Asia

For the most part, North Asia (more widely known as Siberia) is considered to be made up of the

Ethnic Russians
. However, many East Asians also inhabit the region, and historically they have been the majority before Russia's expansion east.

Architecture

The Great Wall of China at Jinshanling
The Taj Mahal, Agra, India
Sun temple at Konarka, Odisha, India
A typical example of Dravidian architecture
Daian-ji temple at Nara, Japan
Borobudur, a Buddhist temple in Indonesia
Ancient ziggurat, Iraq

Asia is home to countless grandiose and iconic historic constructions, usually religious structures, castles and fortifications or palaces. However, after several millennia, many of the greatest buildings have been destroyed or dismantled such as the Ziggurats of Mesopotamia, most of the Great Wall of China, Greek and Hellenistic temples or the royal cities of Persia.[62]

China

Main article: Chinese architecture

Chinese architecture has taken shape in East Asia over many centuries as the structural principles have remained largely unchanged, the main changes being only the decorative details. An important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on articulation and bilateral symmetry, which signifies balance. Bilateral symmetry and the articulation of buildings are found everywhere in China, from palace complexes to humble farmhouses.[63] Since the Tang dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.

India

Main article: Architecture of India
See also: Dravidian architecture

Indian architecture is that vast tapestry of production of the Indian Subcontinent that encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of history considered unique to the sub-continent, sometimes destroying, but most of the time absorbing. The result is an evolving range of architectural production that nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity across history.[64] Being few architectures brought by Mughals in Northern India. Dravidian architecture in Southern India flourished under chola's, vijayanagara, satavahana and many other south India's flourished kingdoms until the Mughals occupation and followed by Britishers in India.

Korea

Main article:
Korean Architecture

Korean architecture refers to an architectural style that developed over centuries in Korea. Just like in the case of other Korean arts, architecture tends to be naturalistic, favors simplicity, avoids the extremes and is economical with shapes.

Indonesia

Main article: Architecture of Indonesia

The Indonesian architecture reflects the diversity of cultural, historical and geographic influences that have shaped Indonesia as a whole. It ranges from native vernacular architecture, Hindu-Buddhist temples, colonial architecture, to modern architecture.

Indonesian vernacular architecture is called rumah adat. The houses hold social significance in society and demonstrate local ingenuity in their relations to environment and spatial organisation.[65]: 5  Notable examples include Rumah Gadang, Tongkonan, Balinese houses and Javanese Joglo. Hindu-Buddhist temple monument called candi, with the best example are Borobudur massive stone mandala-stupa and Prambanan Hindu temple dedicated to Trimurti gods. By the 16th century, the Portuguese followed by the Dutch colonize Indonesian archipelago, and developed European architecture technique and developed colonial architecture.

Japan

Main article: Japanese architecture

Japanese architecture is distinctive in that it reflects a deep ″understanding of the natural world as a source of spiritual insight and an instructive mirror of human emotion″. Attention to aesthetics and the surroundings is given, natural materials are preferred and artifice is generally being avoided. Impressive wooden castles and temples, some of them 2000 years old, stand embedded in the natural contours of the local topography. Notable examples include the Hōryū Temple complex (6th century), Himeji Castle (14th century), Hikone Castle (17th century) and Osaka Castle.[66]

The architecture of any country is a marker of its culture, history and tradition. The materials used, the shape, the lines, curves and colours all come together to present a masterpiece that is unique and beautiful. Vietnamese architecture is no different. From vernacular stilt houses to extravagant palaces and concrete towers, the country's building is an ode to its rich past and its promising future.

Nepal

Main article: Architecture of Nepal

Vietnam

Main article: Vietnamese architecture

Traditional houses in Vietnam were characterized by wooden structures topped by steep roofs. The roofs would be covered with fish-scale tiles and curve outwards, while beams and rafters held up the main building. In some places, stilt houses were built and the houses usually had an odd number of rooms. However, the coming of various dynasties shaped cultural landmarks in the country in different ways. Palaces, pagodas and citadels flourished in Vietnam for over 500 years.

The Lý dynasty of the 11th century, for example, was deeply influenced by Buddhism and incorporated intricate reliefs and motifs into their architecture. In 1031, a staggering 950 pagodas were constructed by the reigning monarch Lý Thái Tông. During this period, rounded statues, door-steps, decorated roofs and bannisters were common features of Vietnamese architecture. The Imperial Citadel of Thăng Long, a UNESCO world heritage site now, is a must-visit for tourists looking to experience Vietnamese heritage up close. Located in present-day Hanoi, the citadel was the political centre of the region for 13 centuries consecutively and will delight history buffs in particular. This magnificent structure is a fine example of Vietnamese architecture from the medieval era.

Trần dynasty, which gained a foothold in the 13th century, brought its own set of beliefs and customs that made its mark in Vietnam's architectural history. Buildings became more complex and demarcated, and gardens became a part of temples and places of worship. Tower-temples also emerged at this time; The Phổ Bình Tower in Nam Định province and Bình Sơn Tower in Vĩnh Phúc province are relics from the Trần dynasty.

Malay Peninsula

Main article:
Malay Architecture

Various cultural influences, notably Chinese, Indian and Europeans, played a major role in forming Malay architecture.[67] Until recent time, wood was the principal material used for all Malay traditional buildings.[68] However, numerous stone structures were also discovered particularly the religious complexes from the time of Srivijaya and ancient isthmian Malay kingdoms.

West Asia

Main articles: History of architecture and Architecture of Mesopotamia

The ancient architecture of the region of the Tigris–Euphrates river system dates back to the 10th millennium BC and lead to the development of urban planning, the courtyard house, and ziggurats.[69] The basic and dominant building material was the mudbrick, which is still in use in the region for the construction of residential structures. Kiln-burnt bricks were coated with a vitreous enamel for purposes of decoration and bitumen functioned as cement. Palaces or temples were constructed on terraces as rooms usually grouped round quadrangles, with large doorways and the roofs rested on richly ornamented columns.[70]

Art

Main article: History of Asian art
See also: Music of Asia
Detail of the Dragon Throne used by the Qianlong Emperor of China, Forbidden City, Qing dynasty. Artifact circulating in U.S. museums on loan from Beijing

Middle Eastern dance has various styles and has spread to the West in the form known as bellydancing. In the Punjab region of India and Pakistan, bhangra dance is very popular. The bhangra is a celebration of the harvest. The people dance to the beat of a drum while singing and dancing.

In Southeast Asia, dance is an integral part of the culture; the styles of dance vary from region to region and island to island. Traditional styles of dance have evolved in Thailand and Burma. The Philippines have their own styles of dance such as Cariñosa and Tinikling; during the Spanish occupation of the Philippines, practitioners of Filipino martial arts hid fighting movements into their dances to keep the art alive despite the fact that it was banned by the occupiers.

Martial arts

Main articles: Martial arts, History of martial arts, Origins of Asian martial arts, and Modern history of East Asian martial arts

Martial arts figure prominently in many Asian cultures, and the first known traces of martial arts date from the

Pencak Silat from Indonesia. In addition, popular styles of wrestling have originated in Turkey and Mongolia
.

Development of Asian martial arts continues today as newer styles are created. Modern hybrid martial arts systems such as Jeet Kune Do and Krav Maga often incorporate techniques from traditional East Asian martial arts. Asian martial arts are highly popular in the Western world and many have become international sports. Karate alone has 50 million practitioners worldwide.[71]

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Asia

Cinema is prominent in South Asia, where the

Bollywood (representing the most-spoken language in the region of Hindi) and South Indian film industries vie for dominance.[72] Pakistan's Lollywood also is growing,[73] while historically, Bengali cinema was highly acclaimed by international film circles, with the movies of Satyajit Ray still praised today.[74][75]

China's cinema has grown in recent decades,[76][77] with the country also influencing the content of Hollywood productions by virtue of its large market.[78] Hong Kong cinema was historically very influential, with kung fu films a major cultural export of the city for decades.[79]

Japanese and Korean productions have become very popular recently; Japanese anime and manga have supplemented each other and become a part of world culture,[80] while Korean films, dramas, and music (K-pop) have grown with much support from the Korean government.[81] The 2019 Korean film Parasite was the first Asian film to win an Academy Award.[82]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Asia

Asia is a continent with great linguistic diversity, and is home to various

census of India of 2001 recorded 30 languages which were spoken by more than a million native speakers and 122 which were spoken by more than 10,000 people, with hundreds of other, smaller languages.[83] Korea
, on the other hand, is home to only one language.

The main languages found in Asia, along with examples of each, are:

Literature

Main article: Asian literature
Chinese poet Li Bai, in a 13th-century depiction by Liang Kai

Arabic

Main article: Arabic literature

Arabic literature is the writing, both

One Thousand and One Arabian Nights.[84]

Chinese

Main article: Chinese literature

In

characters
, as well as cí (詞) poems with mixed line varieties.

Hebrew and Diaspora Jewish

Main articles: Hebrew literature and Jewish literature

Jewish literature consists of ancient, medieval, and modern writings by Jews, both in their

Tanakh
). Many other ancient works of Hebrew literature survive, including religious and philosophical works, historical records, and works of fiction.

Indian

Main article: Indian literature

The famous poet and playwright

Kālidāsa wrote two epics: Raghuvamsham (Dynasty of Raghu) and Kumarasambhavam (Birth of Kumar Kartikeya); they were written in Classical Sanskrit rather than Epic Sanskrit some other examples of his plays are Abhigyanam Shakuntala . Other examples of works written in Classical Sanskrit include the Pānini's Ashtadhyayi which standardized the grammar and phonetics of Classical Sanskrit. The Laws of Manu is an important text in Hinduism. Kālidāsa is often considered to be the greatest playwright in Sanskrit literature, and one of the greatest poets in Sanskrit literature, whose Recognition of Shakuntala and Meghaduuta are the most famous Sanskrit plays. He occupies the same position in Sanskrit literature that Shakespeare occupies in English literature. Some other famous plays were Mricchakatika by Shudraka, Svapna Vasavadattam by Bhasa, and Ratnavali by Sri Harsha. Later poetic works include Geeta Govinda by Jayadeva. Some other famous works are Chanakya's and Vatsyayana's Kamasutra
.

Japanese

Main article: Japanese literature

In the early eleventh century, court lady

Tale of the Genji considered the masterpiece of Japanese literatures and an early example of a work of fiction in the form of a novel
. Early-Modern Japanese literature (17th–19th centuries) developed comparable innovations such as haiku, a form of Japanese poetry that evolved from the ancient hokku (Japanese language: 発句) mode. Haiku consists of three lines: the first and third lines each have five morae (the rough phonological equivalent of syllables), while the second has seven. Original haiku masters included such figures as Edo period poet Matsuo Bashō (松尾芭蕉); others influenced by Bashō include Kobayashi Issa and Masaoka Shiki.

Korean

Main article: Korean literature

Korean literature begins in the Three Kingdoms Period, and continues through the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties to the modern day. Examples of Korean poetric forms include sijo and gasa, with Jeong Cheol and Yun Seon-do considered to be the supreme Korean poets. Examples of renowned Korean prose masterpieces include the Memoirs of Lady Hyegyeong, The Cloud Dream of the Nine and the Chunhyangjeon.

Nepali

Main article: Nepali literature

Pakistani

Main article: Pakistani literature

Pakistani literature has a rich history, and draws influences from both Persian, Muslim and Indian literary traditions. The country has produced a large number of famed poets especially in the national

Urdu language. The famous Muhammad Iqbal
, regarded as the national poet, was often called "The Poet of the East" (Shair-e-Mashriq). Pakistani people wear their traditional and Islamic dress known as Shalwar Qameez.

Their Urdu poetry is widely famous in the whole world. Many times "Mushairas" are held. Pakistani women mostly prefer veil in normal routine days when going out somewhere and wear traditional "Burqa" or "Abaya".

Persian

Main article: Persian literature

Turkish

Main article: Turkish literature

Indonesian

Main article: Indonesian literature

Vietnamese

Main article:
Vietnamese emperors
, royal histories, and declarations of independence from China, as well as Vietnamese poetry. In chronological order notable works include:

  • Đại Cồ Việt
    from Hoa Lư (modern Ninh Bình) to Đại La (modern Hanoi).
  • Nam quốc sơn hà (南國山河) 1077, Mountains and rivers of the Southern country, poem by General Lý Thường Kiệt.
  • Đại Việt sử ký (大越史記) Annals of Đại Việt by Lê Văn Hưu, 1272.
  • Dụ chư tì tướng hịch văn 諭諸裨將檄文, Proclamation to the Officers, General Trần Hưng Đạo, 1284.
  • An Nam chí lược (安南志略) Abbreviated Records of Annam, anon. 1335
  • Gia huấn ca (家訓歌 The Family Training Ode), a 976-line Confucian morality poem attributed to Nguyễn Trãi 1420s
  • Lĩnh Nam chích quái (嶺南摭怪) "The wonderful tales of Lĩnh Nam" 14th century, edited Vũ Quỳnh (1452-1516)
  • Đại Việt sử lược (大越史略) Abbreviated History of Đại Việt, anon. 1377
  • Việt điện u linh tập
    (越甸幽靈集), Spirits of the Departed in the Viet Realm, Lý Tế Xuyên 1400
  • Bình Ngô đại cáo (平吳大誥), Great Proclamation upon the Pacification of the Wu Forces, Nguyễn Trãi 1428
  • Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (大越史記全書) Complete Annals of Đại Việt, Ngô Sĩ Liên 1479.
  • Truyền kỳ mạn lục (傳奇漫錄, Collection of Strange Tales, partly by Nguyễn Dữ, 16th century
  • Hoàng Lê nhất thống chí (皇黎一統志) Unification Records of the Le Emperor, historical novel ending with Gia Long. anon.
  • Chinh phụ ngâm (征婦吟) "Lament of the soldier's wife", the original Chữ Hán version by Đặng Trần Côn d.1745
  • Đại Việt thông sử (大越通史) history by Lê Quý Đôn 1749
  • Vân đài loại ngữ (芸臺類語) encyclopedia Lê Quý Đôn 1773
  • Phủ biên tạp lục (撫邊雜錄) Frontier Chronicles Lê Quý Đôn 1776
  • Việt Nam vong quốc sử (越南亡國史), by Phan Bội Châu in Japan in 1905

Works written in chữ Nôm - a locally invented script based on chữ Hán - was developed for writing the spoken Vietnamese language from the 13th century onwards. For the most part, these chữ Nôm texts can be directly transliterated into the modern chữ Quốc ngữ and be readily understood by modern Vietnamese speakers. However, since chữ Nôm was never standardized, there are ambiguities as to which words are meant when a writer used certain characters. This resulted in many variations when transliterating works in chữ Nôm into

Truyện Kiều, Đoàn Thị Điểm's chữ Nôm translation of the poem Chinh Phụ Ngâm Khúc (征婦吟曲 - Lament of a Warrior Wife) from the Classical Chinese poem composed by her friend Đặng Trần Côn (famous in its own right), and poems by the renowned poet Hồ Xuân Hương
.

Other notable works include

Modern literature While created in the seventeenth century, chữ Quốc ngữ was not widely used outside of missionary circles until the early 20th century, when the French colonial government mandated its use in French Indochina. During the early years of the twentieth century, many periodicals in chữ Quốc ngữ flourished and their popularity helped popularize chữ Quốc ngữ. While some leaders resisted the popularity of chữ Quốc ngữ as an imposition from the French, others embraced it as a convenient tool to boost literacy. After declaring independence from France in 1945, Empire of Vietnam's provisional government adopted a policy of increasing literacy with chữ Quốc ngữ. Their efforts were hugely successful, as the literacy rate jumped overnight.

In those early years, there were many variations in orthography and there was no consensus on how to write certain words. After some conferences, the issues were mostly settled, but some still linger to this day. By the mid-20th century, all Vietnamese works of literature are written in chữ Quốc ngữ, while works written in earlier scripts are transliterated into chữ quốc ngữ for accessibility to modern Vietnamese speakers. The use of the earlier scripts is now limited to historical references.

Works in modern Vietnamese include

Modern literature

The polymath Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali poet, dramatist, and writer from India, became in 1913 the first Asian Nobel laureate. He won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact his prose works and poetic thought had on English, French, and other national literature of Europe and the Americas. He also wrote Jana Gana Mana the national anthem of India as well as Amar Sonar Bangla the national anthem of Bangladesh. Moreover, translation of his another song “Namo Namo Matha" is the national anthem of Sri Lanka. This song was collected by his student Mr. Ananda Samarakoon and M. Nallathamby translated in Tamil language. Other Asian writers won Nobel Prizes in literature, including Yasunari Kawabata (Japan, 1966), and Kenzaburō Ōe (Japan, 1994). Yasunari Kawabata wrote novels and short stories distinguished by their elegant and spartan diction such as the novels Snow Country and The Master of Go.

Family

Families have very great importance in Asian cultures. They teach their kids that the family is their protection and the major source of their identity. They expect loyalty from their children. Parents define the law and the children are expected to obey them. This is called filial piety, the respect for one's parents and elders, and it is a concept that originated in China as 孝 (xiao) with Confucian's teachings.[86] They are expected to have self-control, thus making it hard for them to express emotions, they are also expected to show respect through their motions and the way they speak. Children are expected to look after their parents when they grow older.[87] Sons are expected to stay home, while daughters go and live with their husband's family. In Chinese culture, sometimes children are expected to care for their elders (赡养), and in various diaspora communities one may find Chinese children living with even their grandparents.

The practice of

matrilocality in Korea started in the Goguryeo period, continued through the Goryeo period and ended in the early Joseon period.[88][89] The Korean saying that when a man gets married, he is "entering jangga" (the house of his father-in-law), stems from the Goguryeo period.[90]

Philosophy

Main article: Eastern philosophy
See also: Indian philosophy, Chinese philosophy, and Islamic philosophy

Asian philosophical traditions originated in India and China, and has been classified as

Iranian philosophy
.

During the 20th century, in the two most populous countries of Asia, two dramatically different political philosophies took shape. Mahatma Gandhi gave a new meaning to Ahimsa, and redefined the concepts of nonviolence and nonresistance. During the same period, Mao Zedong's communist philosophy was crystallized.

Religions

Main article: Religion in Asia
Buddha
Jeruslam
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
on 25 September 2014.
Dome of the Rock, an Islamic shrine in Jerusalem.

Asia is the birthplace of many religions such as

Shintoism, Sikhism, Taoism, Yazdânism, and Zoroastrianism. All major religious traditions are practiced in the region and new forms are constantly emerging. The largest religions in Asia are Islam and Hinduism, both with approximately 1.1 billion adherents. In 2010, the Pew Research Center found five of the ten most religiously diverse regions in the world to be in Asia.[91]

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated in India, a country of South Asia. In East Asia, particularly in China and Japan, Confucianism, Taoism, Zen Buddhism and Shinto took shape. Other religions of Asia include the Baháʼí Faith, Shamanism practiced in Siberia, and Animism practiced in the eastern parts of the Indian subcontinent.

Over 60% of the global Muslim population is in Asia.[92][93][94] About 25% of Muslims live in the South Asian region, mainly in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and the Maldives. If Afghanistan is counted, this number is even higher. The world's largest single Muslim community (within the bounds of one nation) is in Indonesia.[95] There are also significant Muslim populations in the Philippines, Brunei, Malaysia, China, Russia, Central Asia and West Asia.[92]

Christian communities also found in Central Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia.[99] Judaism is the major religion of Israel
.

Religions founded in Asia and with a majority of their contemporary adherents in Asia include:

Religion Image Adherents Followers in Asia ref(s)
Baháʼí Faith 7 million 3,433,000 [100]
Buddhism
  • Mahayana Buddhism
  • Theravada Buddhism
  • Vajrayana Buddhism
 520 million >400,000,000 [101][102]
Hinduism 984 million >900,000,000 [101][103]
Judaism 14 million 6,373,700 [101][104]
Islam 2.1 billion 1,160,000,000 [105][92]
Christianity: 2.4 billion 286,100,000 - 364,000,000 [101][106][107]
Jainism >4.2 million >4,200,000 [108]
Shinto Unknown Unknown
Sikhism 25 million Unknown [101]
Taoism ~173 million ~173 million [109]
Druze 1 million >1 million [110]
Zoroastrianism 190,000 Unknown [111]
Shamanism Unknown Unknown
Animism
—
 Unknown Unknown

Festivals and celebrations

Asia has a variety of festivals and celebrations. In China,

National Day
is a holiday of the People's Republic of China.

In

Hatsumoude
in winter together.

In

Eid ul-Adha, Sikh festivals such as Vaisakhi
, and Christian festivals such as Christmas, are also celebrated in India.

The Philippines is also tagged as the "Fiesta Country" because of its all-year-round celebrations nationwide. There is a very strong Spanish influence in their festivals, thus making the Philippines distinctively "Western", yet retaining its native Asian characteristics. Fiesta is the term used to refer to a festival. Most of these fiestas are celebrated in honor of a patron saint. To summarize it all, at least every city or municipality has a fiesta. Some prime examples include Sinulog from Cebu and Dinagyang of Iloilo. Other famous Philippine festivals include the MassKara Festival of Bacolod and Panagbenga Festival of Baguio.

In

Eid ul-Adha, Mawlid, Islamic New Year, Ashura, Tabuik, and Tasyrik day
.

Sports

Main article: Sports in Asia

Due to the vastness of Asia, popularity of sports varies greatly across the continent.

kho-kho also are watched to a significant extent in South Asia.[112]

Cuisine

Main article:
Cuisine of Asia
Indonesian Balinese cuisine

In many parts of Asia, rice is a staple food, and it is mostly served steamed or as a porridge known as congee. China is the world largest producer and consumer of rice. While grain flatbread were consumed in the Middle East to the Indian subcontinent.

Traditionally, it is a common practice in Central, South, and West Asia to eat using their bare hand. However, Western cutlery such as spoons and forks are currently being used increasingly and have also become widely available. With the advent of western cutlery, it may be viewed as rude in these nations to eat using the bare hands in some public places. In Indonesia and the Philippines, people usually use western cutlery such as the spoon, fork, and knife. While in China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and Vietnam, people usually use chopsticks to eat traditional food, but the shape of chopsticks are different in these countries. For example, Chinese chopsticks are long and square; Vietnamese chopsticks are long, being thick at one end and then gradually getting thinner at the other end, and are made of wood or bamboo; Japanese chopsticks are rounder, short, and spiral, having been designed to eat bony fish easily; Taiwanese chopsticks are made of materials such as bamboo, wood, and metal; Korean chopsticks are short, flat, and made of metal. It is said that wood is rarer than metal on the Korean Peninsula[citation needed] and that metal chopsticks can prevent poisoning. Fresh raw fish cuisines, such as sushi and sashimi are very popular in East Asia (especially Japan). These raw fish dishes were influenced by two major cultures: Chinese and Japanese.

In India, people often eat food with their hands, and many

fennel seeds are used in every dish. Most spices originated within the Indian subcontinent. Durians are a common fruit in Southeast Asia, which, Alfred Russel Wallace
, attested to its delicious flavor as worth the entire cost of his trip there.

The

Nasi Padang and nasi campur. Other notable example include rendang, satay, soto, and nasi goreng
.

In

Filipino banquet, many unique dishes have arisen because of the country's long years of colonization and interactions with other neighboring cultures and nations; it has inherited Latin, Malay, Chinese, and American influences to its people's local blend.[113]

Cultural spheres

The culture of Asia is divided into several overlapping

cultural spheres
, including:

Culture by people

See also

Notes

^ John Lindley (1889), Treasury of Botany vol 1. p. 435. Longmans, Green, & Co; New and rev. ed edition (1889)

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Bibliography

Further reading

External links

  • Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home showcases Chinese culture through a detailed examination of a family residence located in the Anhui province of East China.
  • Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize was established to honor the outstanding work of individuals or groups/organizations to preserve and create unique and diverse cultures of Asia.
  • Asian cultural art and antique showcases the cultural ornaments used by the tribes in south east Asia during ancient time.
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