Culture of Myanmar

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The culture of Myanmar (Burma) (Burmese: မြန်မာ့ယဉ်ကျေးမှု; MLCTS: /mranma yanykye:hmu/ ) has been heavily influenced by Buddhism. Burmese culture has also been influenced by its neighbours.[1][2][3]

Since the dethronement of the Konbaung dynasty in the Third Anglo-Burmese War, British colonial rule and westernisation have influenced aspects of Burmese culture, including language and education.

Fine and applied arts

A wide range of Burmese lacquerware from Bagan

Historically,

Burmese art was based on Buddhist or Hindu
myths. There are several regional styles of Buddha images, each with certain distinctive characteristics. For example, the Mandalay style, which developed in the late 1800s, consists of an oval-shaped Buddha with realistic features, including naturally curved eyebrows, smaller but still prominent ears, and a draping robe.[4] There are 10 traditional arts, called pan sè myo (ပန်းဆယ်မျိုး), listed as follows:[5]

  1. Blacksmith (ပန်းပဲ ba-bè)
  2. Woodcarving
    (ပန်းပု ba-bu)
  3. Goldsmith (ပန်းထိမ် ba-dein)
  4. Stucco relief (ပန်းတော့ pandaw)
  5. Masonry (ပန်းရန် pa-yan)
  6. Stone carving (ပန်းတမော့ pantamaw)
  7. Turnery
    (ပန်းပွတ် panbut)
  8. Painting (ပန်းချီ bagyi)
  9. Lacquerware (ပန်းယွန်း panyun)
  10. Bronze casting (ပန်းတဉ်း badin)

In addition to the traditional arts are silk weaving, pottery, tapestry making, gemstone engraving, and gold leaf making. Temple architecture is typically of brick and stucco, and pagodas are often covered with layers of gold leaf while monasteries tend to be built of wood (although monasteries in cities are more likely to be built of modern materials). A very common roofing style in Burmese architecture is called pyatthat (ပြာသာဒ်), which is a many tiered and spired roof.

nat
Sculpture of Myanmar mythical lion
A theatrical performance of the Mon dance

Literature

Buddhism, notably the Jataka Tales, has greatly influenced Burmese literature. Many historical works are nonfiction. However, British colonization introduced many genres of fiction, which have become extremely popular today. Poetry features prominently, and there are several forms of poetry unique to Burmese literature. By 1976, only 411 titles were published annually, compared to 1882, when 445 titles were published. Various factors, especially the lengthened bureaucratic process to obtain printing permits, censorship, and increasing economic hardship of consumers because of the socialist economic schemes, contributed to the decline of Burmese literary output.

Popular novels have similar themes to Western novels, often involving adventure, espionage, detective work, and romance. Many writers also translate Western novels, especially those of Arthur Hailey and Harold Robbins. The flourishing translation sector is the result of the Burmese government, which did not sign the Universal Copyright Convention Agreement, which would have forced Burmese writers to pay royalties to the original writers.

Short stories, often published in magazines, also enjoy tremendous popularity. They often deal with everyday life and have political messages (such as subtle criticisms of the capitalist system), partly because, unlike novels, short stories are not censored by the Press Scrutiny Board. Poetry is also a popular genre today, as it was during the monarchical times. However, unlike novels and other works, which use literary Burmese, poetry uses vernacular rather than literary Burmese. This reform movement is led by left-leaning writers who believe laymen's language (the vernacular and colloquial form of Burmese) should be used instead of formal Burmese in literature.

One of the greatest female writers of the Post-colonial period is Journal Kyaw Ma Ma Lay. Khin Myo Chit was another important writer who wrote, among her works, The 13-Carat Diamond (1955), which was translated into many languages. The journalist Ludu U Hla was the author of numerous volumes of ethnic minority folklore, novels about inmates in U Nu-era jails, and biographies of people working in different occupations. Prime Minister U Nu himself wrote several politically oriented plays and novels.

Other prolific writers of the post-colonial era include Thein Phae Myint (and his The Ocean Traveller and the Pearl Queen, considered a Burmese classic), Mya Than Tint (known for his translations of Western classics like War and Peace), Thawda Swe and Myat Htun. Distinguished women writers, who have also been an ever-present force in Burmese literary history, include Kyi Aye, Khin Hnin Yu, and San San Nweh. Burmese Historians: Ba Shin, Than Tun, Thant Myint-U, Htin Aung, Sao Saimong, Myoma Myint Kywe, and San C. Po were famous in Burma.

Dance

In the Mintha Theater (Mandalay) a master teacher of the Inwa School of Performing Arts demonstrates traditional hand movements.

Dance in Burma can be divided into dramatic, folk and village, and

nat dances, each having distinct characteristics. Although Burmese dance has been influenced by the dance traditions. (yodaya aka), is also popular in Myanmar, Yodaya is the named that was given by Burmese for Thailand. The yodaya dance is only dance with yodaya for entertaining the royal families at royal court, it retains unique qualities that distinguish it from other regional styles, including angular, fast-paced and energetic movements and emphasis on pose, not movement.[6]

Music

Two female musicians play the saung at a performance in Mandalay.

Various types of Burmese music use an array of traditional musical instruments, assembled in an orchestra known as

arched harp
that can be traced to pre-Hittite times.

Classical traditions of Burmese music are found in the

Pali
and subsequently in Burmese intermingled with Pali, related to religion or the power and glory of monarchs, and then the natural beauty of the land, forests and the seasons, eventually feminine beauty, love, passion and longing, in addition to folk music sung in the paddy fields. Pop music, both adopted and homegrown, however, dominates the music of Burma today.

Customs

Mahamuni Buddha in Mandalay

The "traditional" Burmese greeting is mingalaba (မင်္ဂလာပါ, from Pali maṅgala and roughly translated as 'auspiciousness to you'). This is, however, a comparatively recent form of greeting, first emerging during British rule in Burma during the 19th to 20th centuries, coined as a Burmese language equivalent to 'hello' or 'how are you.'[9] More informal rhetorical greetings such as "Have you eaten?" (ထမင်းစားပြီးပြီလား Htamin sa pi bi la) and "How are you?" (နေကောင်းလား Nei kaung la) are still common.[10] "Hello" is also a popular greeting nowadays, whereas it used to be confined to answering the phone.

Clothing

The typical garment of the Burmese is the Indian lungi or

Bamar men wear a Manchu Chinese jacket (တိုက်ပုံအင်္ကျီ) over an English collar shirt (sometimes donning a turban called gaung baung
), while Bamar women wear a blouse buttoned at the front, called yinzi (ရင်စေ့) or to the side, called yinbon (ရင်ဖုံး), and a shawl. In urban areas, skirts and pants are becoming more common, particularly among the young.

During the British colonial era, Burmese nationalists associated traditional clothing, in particular Yaw longyi (ယောလုံချည်), a type of

fawn-coloured collarless jacket, with anti-colonialism and nationalist sentiment, because of a clampdown in the 1920s over increasing dissent.[11] Wearing "traditional" clothing was seen as a mode of passive resistance among the Burmese.[11] British rule nonetheless influenced hair fashion and clothing. Cropped short hair, called bo ke (ဗိုလ်ကေ) replaced long hair as the norm among Burmese men.[12]

Similarly, women began wearing hairstyles like amauk (အမောက်), consisting of crested bangs curled at the top, with the traditional

hair bun (ဆံထုံး).[12] The female sarong (htamein) became shorter, no longer extending to the feet, but to the ankles, and the length of the sarong's top decreased to reveal more waistline.[12] This period also saw the introduction of a sheer muslin
blouse for women, revealing a corset-like lace bodice called za bawli (ဇာဘော်လီ).

Speech

The

Manners

Burmese society operates on ana (အားနာမှု), a characteristic or feeling that has no English equivalent. It is characterised by a hesitation, reluctance or avoidance, to perform an action based on the fear that it will offend someone or cause someone to lose face, or become embarrassed.[13] Also, there is the concept of hpon (ဘုန်း; from Sanskrit bhaga), which translates to "power". It is used as an explanation for the varying degrees of ethnic, socioeconomic, and gender differences between people in a society.[6] Hpon refers to the cumulative result of past deeds, an idea that power or social position comes from merit earned in previous lives.[6] This idea is used to justify the prevalent view that women are lesser than men, who are considered to have more hpon.

Age is still considered synonymous with experience and wisdom, hence venerated. Parents and teachers are second only to the

Three Jewels (ရတနာသုံးပါး yadana thoun ba), together making up the Five Boundless Beneficence (အနန္တငါးပါး ananda nga ba), and are paid obeisance (called gadaw) at special times of the year such as Thingyan, beginning and end of Buddhist Lent
, and usually parents before one leaves on a journey. Elders are served first at meals, and in their absence a spoonful of rice is put aside first in the pot as a token of respect (ဦးချ u cha) before serving the meal. Young people would avoid sitting on a higher level than the elders or passing in front of them unless unavoidable, and then only treading softly with a slight bow. Things would be passed to the elders using both hands together. Men may cross their legs sitting on a chair or a mat but women generally would not.

Children are taught from young 'to venerate one's elders, to respect one's peers, and to be kind to the young and weak' (ကြီးသူကိုရိုသေ၊ ရွယ်သူကိုလေးစား၊ ငယ်သူကိုသနား။ kyeethu go yothei, ywedu go layza, ngethu go thana). Parents are believed to be solely responsible for their children's behaviour as reflected by the expressions: mi ma hsonma, hpa ma hsonma (မိမဆုံးမ ဖမဆုံးမ undisciplined either by mother or by father) and ami youk tau hnoukkyan, ahpa youk tau ko amu-aya kyan (bad language from bad mother, bad body-language from bad father). Saying "thank you" however is not Burmese custom between friends and within the family.

It is considered rude to touch a person's head, because it is the "highest" point of the body. It is also considered taboo to touch another's feet, but worse still to point with the foot or sit with feet pointing at someone older, because the feet are considered the lowest. Also, pointing a finger at Buddha images is considered blasphemous, although this custom has slowly eroded. Shoes are always taken off upon entering homes, monasteries and pagoda compounds. A custom of the Burmese is to perambulate clockwise (လက်ယာရစ် let ya yit) around a pagoda, not counterclockwise (လက်ဝဲရစ် let wè yit).

Physical demonstrations of affection in public are common between friends of the same gender or between members of the family, but seldom seen between lovers. It is thus common to see friends walking together holding hands or with arms round each other, but couples rarely do so, except in major cities.

Footwear

Former US President Barack Obama poses barefoot on the grounds of Shwedagon Pagoda, one of Myanmar's major Buddhist pilgrimage sites.

In Myanmar, footwear is customarily removed before entering a home and Buddhist places of worship.[14] Many workplaces in Myanmar also have shoe-free areas, or restrict footwear altogether, with shoes typically left at the corridor or at the entrance of an office.[15][16]

These customs are strictly enforced in Buddhist places of worship, including

Buddhist monasteries called kyaung.[17] The Burmese remove their footwear at such sites as a sign of religious respect.[18]

British soldiers remove their shoes at the entrance of Shwedagon Pagoda. To the left, a sign reads "Foot wearing is strictly prohibited" in Burmese, English, Tamil, and Urdu.

Strict enforcement of this custom, however, is partly a legacy of

Upper Burma) was fully annexed into British India.[20]

This "shoe question" became a rallying cry for Burmese nationalists, comparable to the cow protection movement in neighboring British India.[19] In 1916, the nationalist Young Men's Buddhist Association (YMBA) began campaigning against foreigners wearing shoes in pagoda grounds, with Buddhist monks at the forefront of the campaign.[21][18] The Ledi Sayadaw, a prominent Buddhist monk, penned On the Impropriety of Wearing Shoes on Pagoda Platforms, which drew in widespread support for the YMBA's activism.[22]

In 1919, after a two-year battle, Cambridge-educated barrister,

Governor of Burma, who had kept his shoes on while touring Shwemawdaw Pagoda in Pegu (now Bago) in 1917, much to the indignation of locals.[23]

In recent years, foreigners have been successfully prosecuted and punished for refusing to remove their footwear at Burmese religious sites. In August 2017, a Russian tourist was arrested and sentenced to seven months of jail time and

hard labor[24] for repeatedly refusing to remove her shoes upon entering pagoda grounds throughout Bagan, as she had violated local customs, per Section 13(1) of the Immigration Act.[25] Burmese authorities subsequently announced a crackdown tourists wearing shoes inside Bagan's pagodas.[26]

Cuisine

Burmese cuisine has been influenced by

lime juice or vinegar used in other cuisines.[27]

Ethnic cuisines, in particular Shan cuisine, are also prominently found throughout Burma, as are Indian and Chinese dishes, particularly in urban areas. The de facto national dish is mohinga (မုန့်ဟင်းခါး), rice noodles in a rich fish soup. Burmese salads (အသုပ်), especially laphet thoke, which is a salad of pickled tea leaves, are also popular dishes. The Burmese traditionally eat with their fingers, although the usage of Western utensils and chopsticks have become more widespread, especially in towns and cities. Indian breads like paratha and naan or rice noodles are also commonly eaten with dishes, in addition to rice.

Weddings

A wedding procession, with the groom and bride dressed in traditional Burmese wedding clothes, reminiscent of royal attire

Weddings are considered one of the Twelve Auspicious Rites in Burmese culture. Traditional Burmese folklore considers love to be destiny, as the Hindu god Brahma writes one's destiny in love on a child's brow when he or she is six days old, called na hpuza (နဖူးစာ, lit. "destiny on the forehead"). A Burmese wedding can be religious or secular and extravagant or simple. Traditionally, a marriage is recognised with or without a ceremony when the man's longyi (sarong) is seen hanging from a rail of the house or if the couple eats from the same plate. Dowries are typically unheard of, and arranged marriage is not a custom of the common Burmese.

Weddings are traditionally avoided during the Buddhist lent, which lasts three months from July to October.[28]

Generally speaking, Buddhist monks are not present to conduct the wedding and solemnise the marriage, as they are forbidden to officiate a marriage, which is considered a worldly affair (lokiya).[29] However, they may be invited to bless the newly wed couple and recite a protective paritta.[30] Typically, the bride and groom arrange an almsgiving feast to monks the morning of the wedding to gain merit.[29]

A more extravagant wedding requires months of preparation, including consultation with an astrologer in choosing the most auspicious time and setting of the event. Also, a master of ceremonies, typically a

conch shell to end the ceremony.[31]
Afterward, entertainers perform, and the wedding is ended with a speech by a guest of higher social standing. Wedding receptions at a hotel, serving tea and ice cream, are common in urban areas.

Funerals

19th-century funeral cart and spire, which would form part of the procession from the home to the place of cremation

Burmese funerals typically last a week, with the body traditionally buried or cremated on the third day.

samsara are distributed to all attendees.[34]

In urban areas, flower wreaths and florals are typically given at a funeral, as well as money, for less well-to-do families. However, in villages, more practical gifts such as food items are given to the grieving family. For seven days, the windows and doors of the house in which the person died may be left open, to let the deceased person's consciousness or "spirit", called leippya (လိပ်ပြာ, lit.'butterfly') leave the home, and a vigil may be kept at nighttime. On the seventh day, called yet le (ရက်လည်), a meal is offered to monks, who in turn recite blessings, protective parittas and transfer merit to the deceased, concluded with a Buddhist water libation ceremony.[30]

Religion

A group of Buddhist worshipers at Shwedagon Pagoda, an important religious site for Burmese Buddhists
Religion in Myanmar
religion percent
Buddhism
89%
Christianity
4%
Islam
4%
Hinduism
1%
Others incl. Animism, Chinese Traditional Religion
2%

Myanmar is a predominantly

nat worship[7][35] and even strands of Hinduism and the Mahayana
tradition of northern India.

Islam reached Burma at approximately the same time, but never gained a foothold outside the geographically isolated seaboard running from modern-day Bangladesh southward to Irrawaddy Delta (modern Rakhine State, formerly Arakan, an independent kingdom until the eighteenth century). The colonial period saw a huge influx of Muslim Indians into Yangon and other cities, and the majority of Yangon's many mosques owe their origins to these immigrants.

Saint Mary's Cathedral
in Downtown Yangon is the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in Burma.

Roman Catholic Church, Myanmar Baptist Convention
and the Assemblies of God of Burma are the largest Christian denominations in Burma. Burma is home to the second largest population of Baptists in the world, after the United States, the result of American missionary work.

The Chinese contribution to Burma's religious mix has been slight, but several traditional Chinese temples were established in Yangon and other large cities in the nineteenth century when large-scale Chinese migration was encouraged by the British. Since approximately 1990 this migration has resumed in huge numbers, but the modern Chinese immigrants seem to have little interest in religion. Some more isolated indigenous peoples in the more inaccessible parts of the country still follow traditional animism.

Burma has nominal guarantees of

Bago.[36] The current regime's nationalistic policy of Bama san-gyin, which considers Buddhism a key element of Burmese-ness, does provide a systemic bias in favour of Buddhists in terms of preferment in the armed forces and other State structures.[37]

Pagodas and monasteries

Aspects of Burmese culture are most apparent at

Ayeyarwady River
where thousands of stupas and temples have stood for nearly a millennium in various states of repair .

Pagodas are known by their

Buddhist scriptures, school also came to be called kyaung (ကျောင်း) in the Burmese language
.

Traditional festivals

There are twelve months in the

Burmese Buddhism and in any town or village the local paya pwè (the pagoda festival) is the most important one.[7]

The most well-known festival is

Eight Precepts of Buddhism.[39]

Sports

Football

Football is the most popular sport in Myanmar.[35] Similar to football, chinlone (Burmese: ခြင်းလုံး) is an indigenous sport that utilises a rattan ball and is played using mainly the feet and the knees, but the head and also the arms may be used except the hands.[7][40]

Lethwei

thaing, divided into bando (unarmed combat) and banshay
(armed combat).

Regatta

Of the twelve seasonal festivals,

regattas
are held in the month of Tawthalin (August/September). The term typically describes racing events of rowed or sailed water craft.

Equestrian

Equestrian events were held by the royal army in the time of the Burmese kings in the month of Pyatho (December/January).[38]

Cricket

During British rule, the game of

Burma national cricket team playing a number of first-class matches. The team exists today, although no longer of first-class quality and is an affiliate member of the International Cricket Council
.

Basketball

Burma also has a

basketball team, which qualified for the Asian Games
in the past.

  • Hlei pyaingbwè - a Burmese regatta
    Hlei pyaingbwè - a Burmese regatta
  • Myinhkin thabin - equestrian sport
    Myinhkin thabin - equestrian sport
  • A bull fight, 19th-century watercolour
    A bull fight, 19th-century watercolour
  • Boxing match, 19th-century watercolour
    Boxing match, 19th-century watercolour

Cinema and Photography

The cinema of Myanmar and former British Burma has a long history dating back to the 1910s. Burma's first film was a recording of the funeral of

Bombay, India
with the title Ngwe Pay Lo Ma Ya (Money Can't Buy It) and directed by Tote Kyi. Films dealing with social issues and political themes became popular in the 1930s.

After World War II, Burmese cinema continued to address political themes. Many of the films produced in the early Cold War era had a strong propaganda element to them. The film Palè Myetyay (Tear of Pearl), produced in the wake of the Kuomintang invasion of Burma in the 1950s, highlighted the importance of the armed forces or Tatmadaw to the country. Ludu Aung Than (The People Win Through) featured anti-Communist propaganda. The script was written by U Nu who served as Prime Minister during the 1950s.[41] The famous film maker and author Thukha started producing films during this period. His most famous film is Bawa Thanthaya (The Life Cycle). Burma held its first Academy Awards in 1952. Starting with the Socialist era in 1962, there was strict censorship and control of film scripts.

In the era that followed the political events of 1988, the film industry has been increasingly controlled by the government. After the 1989 move by the government to open up the economy, the movie industry was privatised. The film company Mingala became the most powerful company in the industry. Film stars who had been involved in the political activities of the 1980s and 1990s, such as Aung Lwin and Tun Wai, were banned from appearing in films.[42]

In the 21st century, Myanmar cinema got visibility in international film festivals. In 2014, The Maw Naing's The Monk was premiered at the 49th Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. Followed by the participation in main competitions as; Wera Aung's short film The Robe at 21st Busan International Film Festival, Aung Phyoe's Cobalt Blue at 72nd Locarno Film Festival.[43] and Maung Sun's Money Has Four Legs at 74th Locarno Film Festival.[44] In 2019, some local media reported a revival in the local movie industry, stating that in 2016 there were 12 movies cleared by local censorship and waiting to be screened, 18 in 2017, more than 40 in 2018, and more than 60 in 2019. The success of Now and Ever (2019), starring Zenn Kyi, was also cited as evidence of the revival.[45]

Photography

Documenting and promoting aspects of modern visual culture, the Myanmar Photo Archive (MPA) is both a physical archive of photographs taken between 1890 and 1995 in Myanmar and the country's former period of British Burma. Further, MPA is an ongoing project for the public awareness of the country's social history. Through various exhibitions, an online presentation and a publication programme, MPA has become known since 2013 for spreading Myanmar's photographic heritage, both on a local and an international level. With a collection of more than 30.000 images and other related material, MPA has become the largest archive for Myanmar's photographic history. MPA also has published books on the history of photography in Myanmar and former Burma and has been engaged in public events and artistic re-evaluation of the archive's collections.[46][47]

National holidays

Date (2010) English name Burmese name Remarks
4 January Independence Day လွတ်လပ်ရေးနေ့ Lut lat yay nei marks independence from British Empire in 1948
12 February Union Day ပြည်ထောင်စုနေ့ Pyidaungzu nei anniversary of the Panglong Agreement in 1947
26 February Full Moon of Tabaung တပေါင်းလပြည့်နေ့ Tabaung la pyei nei Tabaung pwè Pagoda Festivals
2 March Peasants Day တောင်သူလယ်သမားနေ့ Taungthu lèthama nei anniversary of Ne Win's coup
27 March Tatmadaw Day တော်လှန်ရေးနေ့ Taw hlan yei nei formerly Resistance Day (against the Japanese occupation in 1945)
13–16 April Thingyan Festival သင်္ကြန် Thingyan celebrates and brings in the Burmese New Year
17 April Burmese New Year နှစ်ဆန်းတစ်ရက်နေ့ Hnit hsan ta yet nei marks the New Year of the
Burmese calendar
1 May Labour Day အလုပ်သမားနေ့ a louk thama nei Workers' day
8 May Full Moon of Kason ကဆုန်လပြည့်ဗုဒ္ဓနေ့ Kason la pyei Boda nei anniversary of the birth,
Bodhi tree
19 July
Martyrs' Day
အာဇာနည်နေ့ Azani nei commemorates the assassination of Aung San and several other cabinet members in 1947
26 July Beginning of Buddhist Lent ဝါဆိုလပြည့်နေ့ Waso la pyei nei
23 October End of Buddhist Lent သီတင်းကျွတ် Thadingyut Festival of Lights
Oct - Nov
Deepavali
ဒေဝါလီနေ့ Deiwali nei Hindu festival of lights day
21 November Tazaungdaing festival တန်ဆောင်မုန်းလပြည့်နေ့ Tazaungmon la pyei nei Festival of Flying Lanterns/Hot-air Balloons
1 December (10th Day after Full Moon of Tazaungmong)
National Day
အမျိုးသားနေ့ Amyotha nei anniversary of the first university students strike in 1920
25 December Christmas ခရစ္စမတ်နေ့ Hkarissamat nei
Dec - Jan
Eid ul-Adha
အိဒ်နေ့ Id nei a festival of sacrifice at the end of Hajj (annual pilgrimage to Mecca)
5 January 2011 Kayin (Karen) New Year ကရင်နှစ်သစ်ကူး Kayin hnithiku celebrates the New Year of the Karen people

See also

References

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