Culture of Myanmar
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The culture of Myanmar (Burma) (Burmese: မြန်မာ့ယဉ်ကျေးမှု; MLCTS: /mranma yanykye:hmu/ ) has been heavily influenced by Buddhism. Burmese culture has also been influenced by its neighbours.[1][2][3]
Since the dethronement of the Konbaung dynasty in the Third Anglo-Burmese War, British colonial rule and westernisation have influenced aspects of Burmese culture, including language and education.
Fine and applied arts
Historically,
- Blacksmith (ပန်းပဲ ba-bè)
- Woodcarving(ပန်းပု ba-bu)
- Goldsmith (ပန်းထိမ် ba-dein)
- Stucco relief (ပန်းတော့ pandaw)
- Masonry (ပန်းရန် pa-yan)
- Stone carving (ပန်းတမော့ pantamaw)
- Turnery(ပန်းပွတ် panbut)
- Painting (ပန်းချီ bagyi)
- Lacquerware (ပန်းယွန်း panyun)
- Bronze casting (ပန်းတဉ်း badin)
In addition to the traditional arts are silk weaving, pottery, tapestry making, gemstone engraving, and gold leaf making. Temple architecture is typically of brick and stucco, and pagodas are often covered with layers of gold leaf while monasteries tend to be built of wood (although monasteries in cities are more likely to be built of modern materials). A very common roofing style in Burmese architecture is called pyatthat (ပြာသာဒ်), which is a many tiered and spired roof.
Literature
Buddhism, notably the Jataka Tales, has greatly influenced Burmese literature. Many historical works are nonfiction. However, British colonization introduced many genres of fiction, which have become extremely popular today. Poetry features prominently, and there are several forms of poetry unique to Burmese literature. By 1976, only 411 titles were published annually, compared to 1882, when 445 titles were published. Various factors, especially the lengthened bureaucratic process to obtain printing permits, censorship, and increasing economic hardship of consumers because of the socialist economic schemes, contributed to the decline of Burmese literary output.
Popular novels have similar themes to Western novels, often involving adventure, espionage, detective work, and romance. Many writers also translate Western novels, especially those of Arthur Hailey and Harold Robbins. The flourishing translation sector is the result of the Burmese government, which did not sign the Universal Copyright Convention Agreement, which would have forced Burmese writers to pay royalties to the original writers.
Short stories, often published in magazines, also enjoy tremendous popularity. They often deal with everyday life and have political messages (such as subtle criticisms of the capitalist system), partly because, unlike novels, short stories are not censored by the Press Scrutiny Board. Poetry is also a popular genre today, as it was during the monarchical times. However, unlike novels and other works, which use literary Burmese, poetry uses vernacular rather than literary Burmese. This reform movement is led by left-leaning writers who believe laymen's language (the vernacular and colloquial form of Burmese) should be used instead of formal Burmese in literature.
One of the greatest female writers of the Post-colonial period is Journal Kyaw Ma Ma Lay. Khin Myo Chit was another important writer who wrote, among her works, The 13-Carat Diamond (1955), which was translated into many languages. The journalist Ludu U Hla was the author of numerous volumes of ethnic minority folklore, novels about inmates in U Nu-era jails, and biographies of people working in different occupations. Prime Minister U Nu himself wrote several politically oriented plays and novels.
Other prolific writers of the post-colonial era include Thein Phae Myint (and his The Ocean Traveller and the Pearl Queen, considered a Burmese classic), Mya Than Tint (known for his translations of Western classics like War and Peace), Thawda Swe and Myat Htun. Distinguished women writers, who have also been an ever-present force in Burmese literary history, include Kyi Aye, Khin Hnin Yu, and San San Nweh. Burmese Historians: Ba Shin, Than Tun, Thant Myint-U, Htin Aung, Sao Saimong, Myoma Myint Kywe, and San C. Po were famous in Burma.
Dance
Dance in Burma can be divided into dramatic, folk and village, and
Music
Various types of Burmese music use an array of traditional musical instruments, assembled in an orchestra known as
Classical traditions of Burmese music are found in the
Customs
The "traditional" Burmese greeting is mingalaba (မင်္ဂလာပါ, from Pali maṅgala and roughly translated as 'auspiciousness to you'). This is, however, a comparatively recent form of greeting, first emerging during British rule in Burma during the 19th to 20th centuries, coined as a Burmese language equivalent to 'hello' or 'how are you.'[9] More informal rhetorical greetings such as "Have you eaten?" (ထမင်းစားပြီးပြီလား Htamin sa pi bi la) and "How are you?" (နေကောင်းလား Nei kaung la) are still common.[10] "Hello" is also a popular greeting nowadays, whereas it used to be confined to answering the phone.
Clothing
The typical garment of the Burmese is the Indian lungi or
During the British colonial era, Burmese nationalists associated traditional clothing, in particular Yaw longyi (ယောလုံချည်), a type of
Similarly, women began wearing hairstyles like amauk (အမောက်), consisting of crested bangs curled at the top, with the traditional
Speech
The
Manners
Burmese society operates on ana (အားနာမှု), a characteristic or feeling that has no English equivalent. It is characterised by a hesitation, reluctance or avoidance, to perform an action based on the fear that it will offend someone or cause someone to lose face, or become embarrassed.[13] Also, there is the concept of hpon (ဘုန်း; from Sanskrit bhaga), which translates to "power". It is used as an explanation for the varying degrees of ethnic, socioeconomic, and gender differences between people in a society.[6] Hpon refers to the cumulative result of past deeds, an idea that power or social position comes from merit earned in previous lives.[6] This idea is used to justify the prevalent view that women are lesser than men, who are considered to have more hpon.
Age is still considered synonymous with experience and wisdom, hence venerated. Parents and teachers are second only to the
Children are taught from young 'to venerate one's elders, to respect one's peers, and to be kind to the young and weak' (ကြီးသူကိုရိုသေ၊ ရွယ်သူကိုလေးစား၊ ငယ်သူကိုသနား။ kyeethu go yothei, ywedu go layza, ngethu go thana). Parents are believed to be solely responsible for their children's behaviour as reflected by the expressions: mi ma hsonma, hpa ma hsonma (မိမဆုံးမ ဖမဆုံးမ undisciplined either by mother or by father) and ami youk tau hnoukkyan, ahpa youk tau ko amu-aya kyan (bad language from bad mother, bad body-language from bad father). Saying "thank you" however is not Burmese custom between friends and within the family.
It is considered rude to touch a person's head, because it is the "highest" point of the body. It is also considered taboo to touch another's feet, but worse still to point with the foot or sit with feet pointing at someone older, because the feet are considered the lowest. Also, pointing a finger at Buddha images is considered blasphemous, although this custom has slowly eroded. Shoes are always taken off upon entering homes, monasteries and pagoda compounds. A custom of the Burmese is to perambulate clockwise (လက်ယာရစ် let ya yit) around a pagoda, not counterclockwise (လက်ဝဲရစ် let wè yit).
Physical demonstrations of affection in public are common between friends of the same gender or between members of the family, but seldom seen between lovers. It is thus common to see friends walking together holding hands or with arms round each other, but couples rarely do so, except in major cities.
Footwear
In Myanmar, footwear is customarily removed before entering a home and Buddhist places of worship.[14] Many workplaces in Myanmar also have shoe-free areas, or restrict footwear altogether, with shoes typically left at the corridor or at the entrance of an office.[15][16]
These customs are strictly enforced in Buddhist places of worship, including
Strict enforcement of this custom, however, is partly a legacy of
This "shoe question" became a rallying cry for Burmese nationalists, comparable to the cow protection movement in neighboring British India.[19] In 1916, the nationalist Young Men's Buddhist Association (YMBA) began campaigning against foreigners wearing shoes in pagoda grounds, with Buddhist monks at the forefront of the campaign.[21][18] The Ledi Sayadaw, a prominent Buddhist monk, penned On the Impropriety of Wearing Shoes on Pagoda Platforms, which drew in widespread support for the YMBA's activism.[22]
In 1919, after a two-year battle, Cambridge-educated barrister,
In recent years, foreigners have been successfully prosecuted and punished for refusing to remove their footwear at Burmese religious sites. In August 2017, a Russian tourist was arrested and sentenced to seven months of jail time and
Cuisine
Burmese cuisine has been influenced by
Ethnic cuisines, in particular Shan cuisine, are also prominently found throughout Burma, as are Indian and Chinese dishes, particularly in urban areas. The de facto national dish is mohinga (မုန့်ဟင်းခါး), rice noodles in a rich fish soup. Burmese salads (အသုပ်), especially laphet thoke, which is a salad of pickled tea leaves, are also popular dishes. The Burmese traditionally eat with their fingers, although the usage of Western utensils and chopsticks have become more widespread, especially in towns and cities. Indian breads like paratha and naan or rice noodles are also commonly eaten with dishes, in addition to rice.
Weddings
Weddings are considered one of the Twelve Auspicious Rites in Burmese culture. Traditional Burmese folklore considers love to be destiny, as the Hindu god Brahma writes one's destiny in love on a child's brow when he or she is six days old, called na hpuza (နဖူးစာ, lit. "destiny on the forehead"). A Burmese wedding can be religious or secular and extravagant or simple. Traditionally, a marriage is recognised with or without a ceremony when the man's longyi (sarong) is seen hanging from a rail of the house or if the couple eats from the same plate. Dowries are typically unheard of, and arranged marriage is not a custom of the common Burmese.
Weddings are traditionally avoided during the Buddhist lent, which lasts three months from July to October.[28]
Generally speaking, Buddhist monks are not present to conduct the wedding and solemnise the marriage, as they are forbidden to officiate a marriage, which is considered a worldly affair (lokiya).[29] However, they may be invited to bless the newly wed couple and recite a protective paritta.[30] Typically, the bride and groom arrange an almsgiving feast to monks the morning of the wedding to gain merit.[29]
A more extravagant wedding requires months of preparation, including consultation with an astrologer in choosing the most auspicious time and setting of the event. Also, a master of ceremonies, typically a
Funerals
Burmese funerals typically last a week, with the body traditionally buried or cremated on the third day.
In urban areas, flower wreaths and florals are typically given at a funeral, as well as money, for less well-to-do families. However, in villages, more practical gifts such as food items are given to the grieving family. For seven days, the windows and doors of the house in which the person died may be left open, to let the deceased person's consciousness or "spirit", called leippya (လိပ်ပြာ, lit. 'butterfly') leave the home, and a vigil may be kept at nighttime. On the seventh day, called yet le (ရက်လည်), a meal is offered to monks, who in turn recite blessings, protective parittas and transfer merit to the deceased, concluded with a Buddhist water libation ceremony.[30]
Religion
Myanmar is a predominantly
tradition of northern India.Islam reached Burma at approximately the same time, but never gained a foothold outside the geographically isolated seaboard running from modern-day Bangladesh southward to Irrawaddy Delta (modern Rakhine State, formerly Arakan, an independent kingdom until the eighteenth century). The colonial period saw a huge influx of Muslim Indians into Yangon and other cities, and the majority of Yangon's many mosques owe their origins to these immigrants.
The Chinese contribution to Burma's religious mix has been slight, but several traditional Chinese temples were established in Yangon and other large cities in the nineteenth century when large-scale Chinese migration was encouraged by the British. Since approximately 1990 this migration has resumed in huge numbers, but the modern Chinese immigrants seem to have little interest in religion. Some more isolated indigenous peoples in the more inaccessible parts of the country still follow traditional animism.
Burma has nominal guarantees of
Pagodas and monasteries
Aspects of Burmese culture are most apparent at
Pagodas are known by their
.Traditional festivals
There are twelve months in the
The most well-known festival is
Sports
Football
Football is the most popular sport in Myanmar.[35] Similar to football, chinlone (Burmese: ခြင်းလုံး) is an indigenous sport that utilises a rattan ball and is played using mainly the feet and the knees, but the head and also the arms may be used except the hands.[7][40]
Lethwei
(armed combat).
Regatta
Of the twelve seasonal festivals,
Equestrian
Equestrian events were held by the royal army in the time of the Burmese kings in the month of Pyatho (December/January).[38]
Cricket
During British rule, the game of
Basketball
Burma also has a
-
Hlei pyaingbwè - a Burmese regatta
-
Myinhkin thabin - equestrian sport
-
A bull fight, 19th-century watercolour
-
Boxing match, 19th-century watercolour
Cinema and Photography
The cinema of Myanmar and former British Burma has a long history dating back to the 1910s. Burma's first film was a recording of the funeral of
After World War II, Burmese cinema continued to address political themes. Many of the films produced in the early Cold War era had a strong propaganda element to them. The film Palè Myetyay (Tear of Pearl), produced in the wake of the Kuomintang invasion of Burma in the 1950s, highlighted the importance of the armed forces or Tatmadaw to the country. Ludu Aung Than (The People Win Through) featured anti-Communist propaganda. The script was written by U Nu who served as Prime Minister during the 1950s.[41] The famous film maker and author Thukha started producing films during this period. His most famous film is Bawa Thanthaya (The Life Cycle). Burma held its first Academy Awards in 1952. Starting with the Socialist era in 1962, there was strict censorship and control of film scripts.
In the era that followed the political events of 1988, the film industry has been increasingly controlled by the government. After the 1989 move by the government to open up the economy, the movie industry was privatised. The film company Mingala became the most powerful company in the industry. Film stars who had been involved in the political activities of the 1980s and 1990s, such as Aung Lwin and Tun Wai, were banned from appearing in films.[42]
In the 21st century, Myanmar cinema got visibility in international film festivals. In 2014, The Maw Naing's The Monk was premiered at the 49th Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. Followed by the participation in main competitions as; Wera Aung's short film The Robe at 21st Busan International Film Festival, Aung Phyoe's Cobalt Blue at 72nd Locarno Film Festival.[43] and Maung Sun's Money Has Four Legs at 74th Locarno Film Festival.[44] In 2019, some local media reported a revival in the local movie industry, stating that in 2016 there were 12 movies cleared by local censorship and waiting to be screened, 18 in 2017, more than 40 in 2018, and more than 60 in 2019. The success of Now and Ever (2019), starring Zenn Kyi, was also cited as evidence of the revival.[45]
Photography
Documenting and promoting aspects of modern visual culture, the Myanmar Photo Archive (MPA) is both a physical archive of photographs taken between 1890 and 1995 in Myanmar and the country's former period of British Burma. Further, MPA is an ongoing project for the public awareness of the country's social history. Through various exhibitions, an online presentation and a publication programme, MPA has become known since 2013 for spreading Myanmar's photographic heritage, both on a local and an international level. With a collection of more than 30.000 images and other related material, MPA has become the largest archive for Myanmar's photographic history. MPA also has published books on the history of photography in Myanmar and former Burma and has been engaged in public events and artistic re-evaluation of the archive's collections.[46][47]
National holidays
Date (2010) | English name | Burmese name | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
4 January | Independence Day | လွတ်လပ်ရေးနေ့ Lut lat yay nei | marks independence from British Empire in 1948 |
12 February | Union Day | ပြည်ထောင်စုနေ့ Pyidaungzu nei | anniversary of the Panglong Agreement in 1947 |
26 February | Full Moon of Tabaung | တပေါင်းလပြည့်နေ့ Tabaung la pyei nei | Tabaung pwè Pagoda Festivals |
2 March | Peasants Day | တောင်သူလယ်သမားနေ့ Taungthu lèthama nei | anniversary of Ne Win's coup |
27 March | Tatmadaw Day | တော်လှန်ရေးနေ့ Taw hlan yei nei | formerly Resistance Day (against the Japanese occupation in 1945) |
13–16 April | Thingyan Festival | သင်္ကြန် Thingyan | celebrates and brings in the Burmese New Year |
17 April | Burmese New Year | နှစ်ဆန်းတစ်ရက်နေ့ Hnit hsan ta yet nei | marks the New Year of the Burmese calendar
|
1 May | Labour Day | အလုပ်သမားနေ့ a louk thama nei | Workers' day |
8 May | Full Moon of Kason | ကဆုန်လပြည့်ဗုဒ္ဓနေ့ Kason la pyei Boda nei | anniversary of the birth, Bodhi tree
|
19 July | Martyrs' Day |
အာဇာနည်နေ့ Azani nei | commemorates the assassination of Aung San and several other cabinet members in 1947 |
26 July | Beginning of Buddhist Lent | ဝါဆိုလပြည့်နေ့ Waso la pyei nei | |
23 October | End of Buddhist Lent | သီတင်းကျွတ် Thadingyut | Festival of Lights |
Oct - Nov | Deepavali |
ဒေဝါလီနေ့ Deiwali nei | Hindu festival of lights day |
21 November | Tazaungdaing festival | တန်ဆောင်မုန်းလပြည့်နေ့ Tazaungmon la pyei nei | Festival of Flying Lanterns/Hot-air Balloons |
1 December (10th Day after Full Moon of Tazaungmong) | National Day |
အမျိုးသားနေ့ Amyotha nei | anniversary of the first university students strike in 1920 |
25 December | Christmas | ခရစ္စမတ်နေ့ Hkarissamat nei | |
Dec - Jan | Eid ul-Adha |
အိဒ်နေ့ Id nei | a festival of sacrifice at the end of Hajj (annual pilgrimage to Mecca) |
5 January 2011 | Kayin (Karen) New Year | ကရင်နှစ်သစ်ကူး Kayin hnithiku | celebrates the New Year of the Karen people |
See also
- Bamar culture
- Burmese Buddhist titles
- Burmese names
- Monastic examinations
- Monastic schools in Myanmar
- Mythical creatures in Burmese folklore
- Satuditha
- University of Culture, Mandalay
- University of Culture, Yangon
- List of museums in Burma
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External links
- Burmese Literature inc. audio Archived 27 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- An Introduction to Burmese Sculpture Archived 20 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- The Exquisite Art of Wood Carving by Pyi Phone Myint Archived 18 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Burmese Festivals
- Mystic Ball - the Movie (Chinlon)
- Social and Arts Trend Changes in Burma BBC Burmese Highlights: Year-end Specials 2006
- Living and Learning English in Mandalay
- Lethwei