Culture of Europe

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
The continent of Europe, including transcontinental countries
The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter (Basilica Papale di San Pietro) in Vatican City
traditional clothing
Archaeological Museum of Palermo (Italy
).

The culture of Europe is diverse, and rooted in its art, architecture, traditions, cuisines, music, folklore, embroidery, film, literature, economics, philosophy and religious customs.[1]

Definition

Erasmus of Rotterdam

Whilst there are a great number of perspectives that can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing concept of European culture.[2] Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe.[3] One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes:[4]

Berting says that these points fit with "Europe's most positive realizations".[6] The concept of European culture is arguably linked to the classical definition of the

the Americas, and Australasia
, and is not restricted to Europe.

The

Christian influence upon the European culture:[8]
"It is in Christianity that our arts have developed; it is in Christianity that the laws of Europe have--until recently--been rooted."

History

In the 5th century BCE, Greek philosopher Herodotus conceptualized what it was that divided Europe and Asia, differentiating Europe, as the West (where the sun sets), from the East (where the sun rises).[9][10][11] A later concept of Europe as a cultural sphere emerged during the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and early 9th century, limited to the territories of Europe that practiced Western Christianity at the time.[12]

Art

Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna
. An example of prehistoric art.

Prehistoric art

Surviving European

El Castillo Cave in Spain, but cave art exists across the continent. Rock painting was also performed on cliff faces, but fewer of those paintings have survived because of erosion. One well-known example is the rock paintings of Astuvansalmi in the Saimaa
area of Finland.

The

Insular style
of the Early Middle Ages.

Classical art

Augustus of Prima Porta, statue of the emperor Augustus, 1st century AD, Vatican Museums. An example of Roman art.

Ancient Greek art stands out among that of other ancient cultures for its development of naturalistic but idealized depictions of the human body, in which largely nude male figures were generally the focus of innovation. The rate of stylistic development between about 750 and 300 BC was remarkable by ancient standards, and in surviving works is best seen in Ancient Greek sculpture. There were important innovations in painting, which have to be essentially reconstructed due to the lack of original survivals of quality, other than the distinct field of painted pottery. Black-figure pottery and the subsequent red-figure pottery are famous and influential examples of the Ancient Greek decorative arts.

Early Christian art grew out of Roman popular, and later Imperial, art and adapted its iconography
from these sources.

Medieval art

Medieval art can be broadly categorized into the Byzantine art of the Eastern Roman Empire, and the Gothic art that emerged in Western Europe over the same period.

were produced in large quantities throughout the Byzantine era.

The Birth of Venus, Sandro Botticelli, c. 1485. Now in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, Italy. An example of Renaissance art.

Anglo-Saxon and Celtic fusion in the British Isles. It covers many different styles of art including the polychrome style and the Scythian and Germanic animal style. After Christianization, Migration Period art developed into various schools of Early Medieval art in Western Europe, which are normally classified by region, such as Anglo-Saxon art and Carolingian art, before the continent-wide styles of Romanesque art and finally Gothic art developed.

Mosaic of Emperor Justinian and his court, from the church of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy. An example of Byzantine art.

Romanesque art and Gothic art dominated Western and Central Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of the Renaissance style in the 15th century or later, depending on the region. The Romanesque style was greatly influenced by Byzantine and Insular art. Religious art, such as church sculpture and decorated manuscripts, was particularly prominent. Art of the period was characterized by a very vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. Colors tended to be very striking and mostly primary. Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to be flexible to be squeezed into the shapes of historiated initials, column capitals, and church tympanums

. Figures often varied in size in relation to their importance, and landscape backgrounds, if attempted at all, were closer to abstract decorations than realism.

Gothic art developed from Romanesque art in Northern France in the 12th century AD, led by the concurrent development of

Virgin Mary
changed from the Byzantine iconic form to a more human and affectionate mother, often showing the refined manners of a courtly lady.

painters' guild
—as a result, because of better record-keeping, more artists are known to us by name in this period than any previous.

Renaissance art

David (Michelangelo)

ornament
, often used in painted architectural elements, was especially influenced by classical Roman motifs.

The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1647–52, in Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome. A Baroque sculpture.
Dance at Le moulin de la Galette, by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1876, oil on canvas, height: 131 cm, Musée d'Orsay (Paris).

Techniques characteristic of Renaissance art include the use of

foreshortening, to create an illusion of depth; sfumato, a technique of softening of sharp outlines by subtle blending of tones to give the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality; and chiaroscuro
, the effect of using a strong contrast between light and dark to give the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality.

Mannerism, Baroque and Rococo

Renaissance Classicism spawned two different movements—Mannerism and the Baroque. Mannerism, a reaction against the idealist perfection of Classicism, employed distortion of light and spatial frameworks in order to emphasize the emotional content of a painting and the emotions of the painter. Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, often resulting in compositions that are asymmetrical or unnaturally elegant. The style is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. It favors compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance paintings.

In contrast, Baroque art took the representationalism of the Renaissance to new heights, emphasizing detail, movement, lighting, and drama. Perhaps the best-known Baroque painters are

Roman Catholic Church. Religious and political themes are widely explored within the Baroque artistic context, and both paintings and sculptures are characterized by a strong element of drama, emotion, and theatricality. Baroque art was particularly ornate and elaborate in nature, often using rich, warm colors with dark undertones. Dutch Golden Age painting is a distinct subset of Baroque, leading to the development of secular genres such as still life, genre paintings of everyday scenes, and landscape painting
.

By the 18th century, Baroque art had developed into Rococo in France. Rococo art was even more elaborate than the Baroque, but it was less serious and more playful. The artistic movement no longer placed emphasis on politics and religion, focusing instead on lighter themes such as romance, celebration, and appreciation of nature. Furthermore, it sought inspiration from the artistic forms and ornamentation of Far Eastern Asia, resulting in the rise in favor of porcelain figurines and chinoiserie in general. Rococo soon fell out of favor, being seen by many as a gaudy and superficial movement emphasizing aesthetics over meaning.

Neoclassical, Romanticism, and Realism

are among the best-known neoclassicists.

Just as Mannerism rejected Classicism,

medievalism and Gothicism, as well as later mythology and folklore. Among the greatest Romantic artists were Eugène Delacroix, Francisco Goya, J. M. W. Turner, John Constable, Caspar David Friedrich, and William Blake
.

In response to these changes caused by

Arts and Crafts Movement
, which reacted against the impersonality of mass-produced goods and advocated a return to medieval craftsmanship.

Music

Frederic Chopin. Right: Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
The Mystery of the Bulgarian Voices

Classical music

Pre-1600

This broad era encompasses early music, which generally comprises Medieval music (500–1400) and Renaissance music (1400–1600), but sometimes includes Baroque music (1600–1760).

Post-1600

This era includes the common practice period from approximately 1600 to 1900, as well as the modernist and postmodernist styles that emerged after 1900 and which continue to the present day.

Modern music

Folk music: Europe has a wide and diverse range of indigenous music, sharing common features in rural, traveling, or maritime communities. Folk music is embedded in an unwritten, oral tradition, but was increasingly transcribed from the nineteenth century onwards. Many classical composers used folk melodies, and folk music continues to influence popular music in Europe, however its prominence varies across countries. See the list of European folk music.

Popular music: Europe has imported many different genres of popular music, including Rock, Blues, R&B Soul, Jazz, Hip-Hop and Pop. Various modern genres named after Europe are rooted in Electronic dance music (EDM), and include Europop, Eurodisco, Eurodance and Eurobeat. Popular music can be highly varied across Europe. Styles of music from nations formerly under Ottoman rule enrich this variation, with their native musical traditions having fused with Ottoman musical influences over centuries.

Media

Television

Radio

Newspapers

Architecture

Stonehenge, Wiltshire, England, is one of the world's best known megalithic structures.

Prehistoric architecture

The Neolithic long house was a long, narrow timber dwelling built by the first farmers in

Megaliths found in Europe and the Mediterranean were also erected in the Neolithic period. See Neolithic architecture
.

Ancient classical architecture

The Parthenon, Athens, Greece, is an example of Ancient Greek architecture.
Baltic States, is a mixture of Western and Eastern architectural cultures.[13][14][15]

Corinthian Order, was to have a profound effect on the Western architecture
of later periods.

ancient Romans, but differed from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture. Roman architecture flourished in the Roman Republic and even more so under the Empire, when the great majority of surviving buildings were constructed. It used new materials, particularly concrete, and newer technologies such as the arch and the dome to make buildings that were typically strong and well-engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the empire, sometimes complete and still in use.

León Cathedral
in Spain is Gothic style architecture

Medieval architecture

symmetrical plan; the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics and different materials, and is most frequently seen in churches. Plenty of examples of this architecture are found alongside the Camino de Santiago
.

ribbed vault (which evolved from the joint vaulting of Romanesque architecture), and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the great cathedrals, abbeys
, and churches of Europe.

Renaissance and baroque architecture

Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy, an example of Renaissance architecture.

Renaissance architecture began in the early 14th and lasted until the early 17th century. It demonstrates a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman architectural thought and material culture, particularly the symmetry, proportion, geometry, and the regularity of parts of ancient buildings. Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities. The style was carried to France, Germany, England, Russia, and other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact

Palladian architecture was derived from and inspired by the designs of the Italian Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). Palladio's work was strongly based on the symmetry, perspective, and values of the formal classical temple architecture of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 17th century, Palladio's interpretation of this classical architecture was adapted as the style known as Palladianism. It continued to develop until the end of the 18th century, and continued to be popular in Europe throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, where it was frequently employed in the design of public and municipal buildings.

Palace of Queluz in Portugal is an example of Baroque architecture.

Protestant Reformation. Baroque was characterized by new explorations of form, light, and shadow, and a freer treatment of classical elements. It reached its extreme form in the Rococo
style.

19th-century architecture

Votivkirche in Vienna, Austria, an example of Gothic revival architecture.
Palau de la Música Catalana, Barcelona, Spain, a modernisme
building.

Revivalism was a hallmark of nineteenth-century European architecture. Revivals of the Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque styles all took place, alongside revivals of the Classical styles. Regional styles, such as English Tudor, were also revived, as well as non-European styles, such as Chinese (Chinoiserie) and Egyptian. These revivals often used elements of the original style in a freer way than original examples, sometimes borrowing from multiple styles at once. At Alnwick Castle, for example, Gothic revival elements were added to the exterior of the original medieval castle, while the interiors were designed in a Renaissance style.

Art Nouveau architecture was a reaction against the eclectic styles which dominated European architecture in the second half of the 19th century. It was expressed through decoration. The buildings were covered with ornament in curving forms, based on flowers, plants, or animals: butterflies, peacocks, swans, irises, cyclamens, orchids, and water lilies. Façades were asymmetrical, and often decorated with polychrome ceramic tiles. The decoration usually suggested movement; there was no distinction between the structure and the ornament.

20th-century and modern architecture

Art Deco architecture began in Brussels in 1903–4. Early buildings had clean lines, rectangular forms, and no decoration on the facades; they marked a clean break with the art nouveau style. After the First World War, art deco buildings of steel and reinforced concrete began to appear in large cities across Europe and the United States. Buildings became more decorated, and interiors were extremely colorful and dynamic, combining sculpture, murals, and ornate geometric design in marble, glass, ceramics, and stainless steel.

Modernist architecture is a term applied to a group of styles of architecture that emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II. It was based upon new technologies of construction, particularly the use of glass, steel, and reinforced concrete; and upon a rejection of the traditional neoclassical architecture and Beaux-Arts styles that were popular in the 19th century. Modernist architecture continued to be the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings into the 1980s, when it was challenged by postmodernism.

Zoloti Vorota (Kyiv Metro) in Ukraine, regarded as one of the most impressive metro stations in Europe.

Ronchamp Chapel Notre-Dame-du-Haut (1950–1955) by Le Corbusier
. The style was individualistic, but tendencies include Distortion of form for an emotional effect, efforts at achieving the new, original, and visionary, and a conception of architecture as a work of art.

.

semiotic analysis developed by the French philosopher Jacques Derrida. Besides fragmentation, Deconstructivism often manipulates the structure's surface skin and creates by non-rectilinear shapes which appear to distort and dislocate elements of architecture
. The finished visual appearance is characterized by unpredictability and controlled chaos.

Literature

Spanish writer of Don Quixote Miguel de Cervantes
Leo Tolstoy was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time[16]

Classical literature

Medieval literature

Renaissance literature

Early modern literature

Modern literature

Film

Antoine Lumière realized, on 28 December 1895, the first projection, with the Cinematograph, in Paris.[17] In 1897, Georges Méliès established the first cinema studio on a rooftop property in Montreuil, near Paris. Some notable European film movements include

New French Extremity, and Romanian New Wave
.

The cinema of Europe has its own awards, the European Film Awards. Main festivals : Cannes Film Festival (France), Berlin International Film Festival (Germany). The Venice Film Festival (Italy) or Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica di Venezia, is the oldest film festival in the world. Philippe Binant realized, on 2 February 2000, the first digital cinema projection in Europe.[20]

Science

Renaissanse-era mathematician and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus
Physicist and developer of the theory of relativity, Albert Einstein

Classical science

See:

History of science in classical antiquity

Medieval science

See: post-classical science

Renaissance science

See:

History of science in the Renaissance

Early modern science

See: Scientific Revolution, Science in the Age of Enlightenment, and Romanticism in Science

Modern science

See: Science and Technology in Europe

Philosophy