Culture of Russia
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History
The
Peasant revolts intensified during the nineteenth century, culminating with
Language and literature
Russia's 160 ethnic groups speak some 100 languages.[17] According to the 2002 census, 142.6 million people speak Russian, followed by Tatar with 5.3 million and Ukrainian with 1.8 million speakers.[18] Russian is the only official state language, but the Constitution gives the individual republics the right to make their native language co-official next to Russian.[19] Despite its wide dispersal, the Russian language is homogeneous throughout Russia. Russian is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken Slavic language.[20] Russian belongs to the Indo-European language family and is one of the living members of the East Slavic languages; the others being Belarusian and Ukrainian (and possibly Rusyn). Written examples of Old East Slavic (Old Russian) are attested from the 10th century onwards.[21]
Over a quarter of the world's scientific literature is published in Russian. Russian is also applied as a means of coding and storage of universal knowledge—60–70% of all world information is published in the English and Russian languages.[22] The language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations.[citation needed]
Folklore
Russian
Many
Folklorists today consider the 1920s the Soviet Union's golden age of folklore. The struggling new government, which had to focus its efforts on establishing a new administrative system and building up the nation's backwards economy, could not be bothered with attempting to control literature, so studies of folklore thrived. There were two primary trends of folklore study during the decade: the formalist and Finnish schools. Formalism focused on the artistic form of ancient byliny and faerie tales, specifically their use of distinctive structures and poetic devices.[23] The Finnish school was concerned with connections amongst related legends of various Eastern European regions. Finnish scholars collected comparable tales from multiple locales and analyzed their similarities and differences, hoping to trace these epic stories' migration paths.[24]
Once Joseph Stalin came to power and put his first five-year plan into motion in 1928, the Soviet government began to criticize and censor folklore studies. Stalin and the Soviet regime repressed folklore, believing that it supported the old tsarist system and a capitalist economy. They saw it as a reminder of the backward Russian society that the Bolsheviks were working to surpass.[26] To keep folklore studies in check and prevent "inappropriate" ideas from spreading amongst the masses, the government created the RAPP – the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers. The RAPP specifically focused on censoring fairy tales and children's literature, believing that fantasies and "bourgeois nonsense" harmed the development of upstanding Soviet citizens. Fairy tales were removed from bookshelves and children were encouraged to read books focusing on nature and science.[27] RAPP eventually increased its levels of censorship and became the Union of Soviet Writers in 1932.[citation needed]
In order to continue researching and analyzing folklore, intellectuals needed to justify its worth to the Communist regime. Otherwise, collections of folklore, along with all other literature deemed useless for the purposes of Stalin's Five Year Plan, would be an unacceptable realm of study. In 1934,
Yuri Sokolov, the head of the folklore section of the Union of Soviet Writers also promoted the study of folklore by arguing that folklore had originally been the oral tradition of the working people, and consequently could be used to motivate and inspire collective projects amongst the present-day proletariat.[30] Characters throughout traditional Russian folktales often found themselves on a journey of self-discovery, a process that led them to value themselves not as individuals, but rather as a necessary part of a common whole. The attitudes of such legendary characters paralleled the mindset that the Soviet government wished to instill in its citizens.[31] He also pointed out the existence of many tales that showed members of the working class outsmarting their cruel masters, again working to prove folklore's value to Soviet ideology and the nation's society at large.[32] Convinced by Gorky and Sokolov's arguments, the Soviet government and the Union of Soviet Writers began collecting and evaluating folklore from across the country. The Union handpicked and recorded particular stories that, in their eyes, sufficiently promoted the collectivist spirit and showed the Soviet regime's benefits and progress. It then proceeded to redistribute copies of approved stories throughout the population. Meanwhile, local folklore centers arose in all major cities.[33] Responsible for advocating a sense of Soviet nationalism, these organizations ensured that the media published appropriate versions of Russian folktales in a systematic fashion.[24]
Apart from circulating government-approved fairy tales and byliny that already existed, during Stalin's rule authors parroting appropriate Soviet ideologies wrote Communist folktales and introduced them to the population. These contemporary folktales combined the structures and motifs of the old byliny with contemporary life in the Soviet Union. Called noviny, these new tales were considered the
These new Soviet fairy tales and folk songs primarily focused on the contrasts between a miserable life in old tsarist Russia and an improved one under Stalin's leadership.
Once Stalin died in March 1953, folklorists of the period quickly abandoned the new folktales. Written by individual authors and performers, noviny did not come from the oral traditions of the working class. Consequently, today they are considered pseudo-folklore, rather than genuine Soviet (or Russian) folklore.[44] Without any true connection to the masses, there was no reason noviny should be considered anything other than contemporary literature. Specialists decided that attempts to represent contemporary life through the structure and artistry of the ancient epics could not be considered genuine folklore.[45] Stalin's name has been omitted from the few surviving pseudo-folktales of the period.[44] Instead of considering folklore under Stalin a renaissance of the traditional Russian epic, today it is generally regarded as a period of restraint and falsehood.[citation needed]
Literature
Russian literature is considered to be among the world's most influential and developed.[46] It can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic were composed.[47] By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, with works from Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, and Nikolay Karamzin.[48] From the early 1830s, during the Golden Age of Russian Poetry, literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.[49] Romanticism permitted a flowering of poetic talent: Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore.[50] Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev and Afanasy Fet.[48]
The first great Russian novelist was
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and
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Turgenev
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Dostoevsky
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Solzhenitsyn
Philosophy
Some Russian writers, like
]In its further developments, Russian philosophy was always marked by a deep connection to literature and interest in creativity, society, politics and nationalism; cosmos and religion were other primary subjects. Notable philosophers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries include Vladimir Solovyov, Sergei Bulgakov, Pavel Florensky, Nikolai Berdyaev, Vladimir Lossky and Vladimir Vernadsky. In the 20th century Russian philosophy became dominated by Marxism.[citation needed]
Humour
Russia owes much of its wit to the great flexibility and richness of the Russian language, allowing for puns and unexpected associations. As with any other nation, its vast scope ranges from lewd jokes and silly word play to political satire.[citation needed]
Russian jokes, the most popular form of Russian humour, are short fictional stories or dialogues with a punch line. Russian joke culture features a series of categories with fixed and highly familiar settings and characters. Surprising effects are achieved by an endless variety of plots. Russians love jokes on topics found everywhere in the world, be it politics, spouse relations, or mothers-in-law.[citation needed]
Visual arts
As early as the 12th and 13th centuries Russia had its national masters who were free of all foreign influence, i. e. that of the Greeks on the one hand, and on the other hand that of the Lombard master-masons called in Andrei Georgievich to build the Uspensky (Assumption) Cathedral in the city of Vladimir. Russia's relations with the Greek world were hampered by the Mongol invasion, and it is to the isolation arising from this that we must attribute the originality of Slavo-Russian ornamentation, which has a character of its own, quite unlike the Byzantine style and the Romanesque.[citation needed]
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Kremlin Tower Clock; 1913;Fabergé; Cleveland Museum of Art
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Russian tea set; by Peter Carl Fabergé; made before 1896; silver gilt and opaque cloisonne enamel; Cleveland Museum of Art (USA)
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Kovsh (wine vessel); by Fedor I. Rückert; 1896–1906; overall: 8.3 x 20.4 x 12.7 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art
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Fabergé Museum (Saint Petersburg, Russia)
Architecture
The history of
After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles. The 18th-century taste for
Some notable Russian buildings include:
- White House of Russia
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The medieval Pskov Krom
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Peter and Paul Fortress in Saint Petersburg
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An aerial view of the Winter Palace, Alexander Column and the General Staff Building at the Palace Square, Saint Petersburg
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Details of the domes,Kizhi
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An interior of Kazan Cathedral, Saint Petersburg
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Saint Isaac's Cathedral from Saint Petersburg
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Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow
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The Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow
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Church of the Savior on Blood in Saint Petersburg
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GUM in Moscow
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The Shukhov Tower in Moscow
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Lenin's Mausoleum in Moscow
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The main building of Moscow State University in Moscow
Handicraft
Matryoshka doll is a Russian nesting doll. A set of Matryoshka dolls consist of a wooden figure which can be pulled apart to reveal another figure of the same sort but somewhat smaller inside. It has in turn another somewhat smaller figure inside, and so on. The number of nested figures is usually six or more. The shape is mostly cylindrical, rounded at the top for the head and tapered towards the bottom, but little else. The dolls have no extremities, (except those that are painted). The true artistry is in the painting of each doll, which can be extremely elaborate. The theme is usually peasant girls in traditional dress, but can be almost anything; for instance, fairy tales or Soviet leaders.[citation needed]
Other forms of Russian handicraft include
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A Khokhloma painting on a cutting board
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Dymkovo toys in a store
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Nenetsencampment
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Some Filimonovo toys
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Pysankas
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Lacquered box with a Kholuy miniature, depicting the town of Suzdal
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Troika with wolves.Palekh miniature
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A Permogorsk painting on wood
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Russian architecture
Historical paintings depicting average Russians and their clothing
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Russian clothing, ca. 17th–19th century. Metropolitan Museum of Art.[77]
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Russian clothing, late 18th–19th century. Metropolitan Museum of Art.[78]
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Painting depicting the wedding uniting two families of the powerful Boyar class that dominated Muscovite politics in the 16th and 17th centuries, painting of 1883 by Konstantin Makovsky. Hillwood Estate, Museum & Gardens.[79]
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Peasant girl with kokoshnik headdress, ca. 19th century.
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Samoyed in summer dress, in 1781, by Johann Gottlieb Georgi, Siberia
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Children, let the Easter eggs roll, ca. 1855, by Nikolay Koshelev. Russian Museum.
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Yakutians, ca. 1862 by Gustav Pauli, Eastern Siberia
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Russian peasants, ca. 1871, by Vassily Maximov.
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Acceptance of dowry in a business family, ca. 1873, by Vasili Pukirev.
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Water Carrier, in inland Russia, in 1873, by Sergei Gribkov
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The Little Baby-Sitter, in 1880 by Khariton Platonov, Russia.
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Russian family, in 1885, by Kirill Lemokh.
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Russian brothers reading a tale, in 1891, by Nikolay Bogdanov-Belsky. Belarusian National Arts Museum
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Court robe, Russian, ca. 1900. Metropolitan Museum of Art.[80]
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"The Reaper" by Grigoriy Myasoyedov, before 1911
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Russian girl with kokoshnik, before 1915, by Konstantin Makovsky
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Two girls by Boris Grigoriev, early 20th century, Soviet Russia.
Icon painting
Russian icons are typically paintings on wood, often small, though some in churches and monasteries may be as large as a table top. Many religious homes in Russia have icons hanging on the wall in the krasny ugol, the "red" or "beautiful" corner (see
The use and making of icons entered
In the mid-seventeenth century, changes in liturgy and practice instituted by
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Holy Trinity, Hospitality of Abraham; by Andrei Rublev; c. 1411; tempera on panel; 1.1 x 1.4 m (4 ft 8 in x 3 ft 83⁄4 in); Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow)
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A three-leaved fold with the image of the "Annunciation", "Trinity" and "Presentation"; the end of the 17th century; temperaon wood; 13 x 7.3 cm; National Art Museum of Azerbaijan (Baku)
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Icon of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (Dvorischensky); 18th century; wood, gesso & tempera; Ryabushinsky Museum of Icons and Paintings (Moscow)
Lubok
A lubok (plural Lubki,
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Baba Yaga riding a pig and fighting the infernal Crocodile; 17th century
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The sun, moon, seasons and 12 months in the form of signs of the zodiac; the end of the 17th-early 18th century
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The Mice are burying the Cat; 18th century
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Farnos the Red Nose (lubok depicting a pig-riding jester); 18th century
Baroque, Classical and Romanticist painting
The Russian Academy of Arts was created in 1757 with the aim of giving Russian artists an international role and status. Notable portrait painters from the academy include Ivan Argunov, Fyodor Rokotov, Dmitry Levitzky, and Vladimir Borovikovsky.[citation needed]
In the early 19th century, when
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Portrait of Chancellor Gavriil Golovkin by Ivan Nikitin (1720)
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Portrait of Maria Lopukhina by Vladimir Borovikovsky (1797)
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Jan Usmar's Test of Strength by Grigory Ugryumov (1797)
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Monument to Minin and Pozharsky by Ivan Martos (1818)
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The Last Day of Pompeii by Karl Bryullov (1833)
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The Ninth Wave by Ivan Aivazovsky (1850)
Realist and Modernist painting
By the turn of the 20th century and on, many Russian artists developed their own unique styles, neither realist nor avant-garde. These include Boris Kustodiev, Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin, Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich. Many works by the Peredvizhniki group of artists have been highly sought after by collectors in recent years. Russian art auctions during Russian Art Week in London have increased in demand and works have been sold for record breaking prices.[citation needed]
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The Rooks Have Returned by Alexei Savrasov (1871)
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The Apotheosis of War by Vasily Vereshchagin (1871)
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Barge Haulers on the Volga by Ilya Repin (1873)
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Knight at the Crossroads by Viktor Vasnetsov (1878)
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Moonlit Night on the Dnieper by Arkhip Kuindzhi (1882)
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Portrait of an Unknown Woman by Ivan Kramskoi (1883)
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Girl with Peaches by Valentin Serov (1887)
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The Demon Seated by Mikhail Vrubel (1891)
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The Evening Bells by Isaac Levitan (1892)
Russian avant-garde
The
In the 20th century many Russian artists made their careers in Western Europe, forced to emigrate by the Revolution. Wassily Kandinsky, Marc Chagall, Naum Gabo and others spread their work, ideas, and the impact of Russian art globally.[citation needed]
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I and the Village by Marc Chagall (1911)
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Bathing of a Red Horse by Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin (1912)
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Vasily Kandinsky(1913)
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Cyclist by Natalia Goncharova (1913)
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Black Square by Kazimir Malevich(1915)
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Tatlin's Tower by Vladimir Tatlin (1920)
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Books in All Branches of Knowledge poster by Alexander Rodchenko
Soviet art
During the
However, in the late Soviet era many artists combined innovation with
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The Bolshevik by Boris Kustodiev (1920)
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Worker and Kolkhoz Woman by Vera Mukhina (1937)
Performance arts
Russian folk music
Russians have distinctive traditions of
Russian folk dance
Russian folk dance (Russian: Русский Народный Танец) can generally be broken up into two main types of dances. Khorovod (Russian: Хоровод), a circular game type dance where the participants hold hands, sing, and the action generally happens in the middle of circle, and Plyaska (Russian: Пляска or Плясовый), a circular dance for men and women that increases in diversity and tempo, according to Bob Renfield, considered to be the preeminent scholar on the topic. Other forms of Russian Folk Dance include Pereplyas (Russian: Перепляс), an all-male competitive dance, Mass Dance (Russian: Массовый пляс), an unpaired stage dance without restrictions on age or number of participants, Group Dance (Russian: Групповая пляска) a type of mass dance employs simple round-dance passages, and improvisation, and types of Quadrilles (Russian: Кадриль), originally a French dance brought to Russia in the 18th century.[83]
Ethnic Russian dances include
Classical music
Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.
Soviet and Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinists David Oistrakh and Gidon Kremer,[92][93] cellist Mstislav Rostropovich,[94] pianists Vladimir Horowitz,[95] Sviatoslav Richter,[96] and Emil Gilels,[97] and vocalist Galina Vishnevskaya.[98]
Ballet
The original purpose of the ballet in Russia was to entertain the imperial court. The first ballet company was the Imperial School of Ballet in St. Petersburg in the 1740s. The
During the early 20th century, Russian ballet dancers Anna Pavlova and Vaslav Nijinsky rose to fame. Soviet ballet preserved the perfected 19th century traditions,[100] and the Soviet Union's choreography schools produced one internationally famous star after another, including Maya Plisetskaya, Rudolf Nureyev, and Mikhail Baryshnikov. The Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow and the Mariinsky in Saint Petersburg remain famous throughout the world. Ballet from then on spread worldwide.[101]
Opera
The first known opera made in Russia was
Electronic and experimental music
Russia is the place where many of the earliest experiments in
During the 1940s, new electronic instruments were invented in the Soviet Union, including "V-9" (Russian: В-9) by Andrei Volodin, emiriton (Russian: эмиритон) by Andrey Rimsky-Korsakov and A.Ivanov. Emiriton was praised by Shostakovich, and an ensemble of four emiritons toured Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1940.
In 1956, Ensemble of Electromusical Instruments (
In 1965, production of the first consumer-grade synthesizer in the Soviet Union, called "Yunost-70" (Youth-70) (Russian: Юность-70), was launched.
In 1966, Moscow Experimental Electronic Music Studio (MESEM) (
During the late 1960s, electronic light music ensembles emerged in the Soviet Union, among them were Ensemble Rokoko, Ensemble Elektron and various jazz ensembles. Their music was frequently transmitted by radio abroad, an effort to increase foreign tourism to the USSR.
By the early 1970s, electronic and electroacoustic instruments became a staple in Soviet
Among official soundtracks for the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow opening and closing ceremonies was electronic "Oh Thou Sport, you are eternal progress" (Russian: О, спорт - ты вечный прогресс) from the electronic cantata "Ode to the good messenger" (Russian: Ода доброму вестнику) composed by Eduard Artemiev. The sound director for the opening ceremony, Yury Bogdanov, was another notable alumni of MESEM and author of more than 200 electronic soundtracks for Soviet movies, and numerous electronic and experimental albums.
After the fall of Soviet Union, several electronic music subgenres have emerged from Russia, namely
Modern music
During the Soviet times,
Cinema
Russian and later
The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema. The comedies of
Animation
Russia also has a long and rich
Science and technology
Radio and TV
Russia has almost 37 thousand media outlets, over 35 thousand newspapers,
Internet
Originating from Russian
With the introduction of
As of late, there are scores of websites offering Russian language content including mass media, e-commerce, search engines and so on. Particularly notorious are the "Russian
Science and innovation
Russia's
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Mendeleev
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Korolyov
Space exploration
In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial
In 1957,
Lifestyle
Ethnic dress of Russian people
Not only the minorities in Russia but the Russian culture as a whole has in the different regions of the country like in Northwest Russia, Central Russia, Southern Russia, Siberian Russia, Volga Russia, Ural Russia, Far East Russia and the Russian North Caucasus and their Oblasts own local traditions and characteristics which were developed over a long period of time through strong ethno-cultural interactions within the various groups and communities, like Slavs, Tatars and Finno-Ugrics.[167]
Traditional
Cuisine
Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass,[181] and the national alcoholic drink is vodka, which was created in the nation in the 14th century.[182] The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,[183] while beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.[184] Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.[185] Tea has also been a historically popular beverage in Russia.[186]
Traditions
Holidays
Russia has eight, diverse—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.[187] The year starts with New Year's Day on January 1, soon followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on January 7; the two are the country's most popular holidays.[188] Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on February 23;[189] International Women's Day, dedicated to women, on March 8;[190] and Spring and Labor Day, originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers; on May 1.[191]
Popular non-public holidays include Old New Year on 14 January;[196] Tatiana Day on 25 January, dedicated to students;[197] Maslenitsa, an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday;[198] Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space;[199] Kupala Night on 6–7 July, a traditional Slavic holiday;[200] and Peter and Fevronia Day. Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.[201] The Scarlet Sails is a famous public event held annually during the White Nights Festival in Saint Petersburg.[202]
Religion
Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism are Russia's traditional religions, deemed part of Russia's "historical heritage" in a law passed in 1997.[203] Estimates of believers widely fluctuate among sources, and some reports put the number of non-believers in Russia as high as 48-67% of the population.[204] Russian Orthodoxy is the dominant religion in Russia.[205] 95% of the registered Orthodox parishes belong to the Russian Orthodox Church while there are a number of smaller Orthodox Churches.[206] However, the vast majority of Orthodox believers do not attend church on a regular basis. Nonetheless, the church is widely respected by both believers and nonbelievers, who see it as a symbol of Russian heritage and culture.[207] Smaller Christian denominations such as Roman Catholics, Armenian Gregorians, and various Protestants exist.
The ancestors of many of today's Russians
Cossack culture in Russia
The steppe culture of the Russian
Russian forest culture
The forest plays a very important role in
More elements of Russian society and culture
Russian walking culture
Strolling or walking (Russian: гулять, gulyat') is very common in the Russian society. In contrast to many western countries strolling is very common among young people in Russia. Young people often arrange just to go for a walk.[214][215] Besides the verb, the experience itself, which describes the time span of the walk, is called progulka (Russian: прогулка).[216] Walking is so important in Russian culture that gulyat' is also a synonym for "to party".[217][218][self-published source?]
Mushroom hunting and berry picking
Activities in the forest where people pick mushrooms and berries are very common in Russia. Mushrooms (Russian: грибы, griby) have been an important part of Russian folk culture at least since the 10th century and an essential part of Russian meals. There are more than 200 kinds of edible mushrooms in Russia. Mushrooms were always considered magical and so they play a prominent role in Russian fairy tales. The ability to identify and prepare edible mushrooms is often passed on from generation to generation. The mushroom hunting tradition is especially common in Slavic-speaking and Baltic countries. The berry (Russian: ягода, yagoda) also plays an important role in Russian folk culture and is often part of Russian craftsmanship, folk songs and national costumes. The cranberry was known in Europe for centuries as the "Russian berry". To pick mushrooms and berries in forests is a kind of meditation in Russia.[219][220][221][222][223]
Sports
Historically,
Basketball
As the Soviet Union, Russia was traditionally very strong in basketball, winning
Ice hockey
Although
Bandy
Bandy, known in Russian as "hockey with a ball" and sometimes informally as "Russian hockey" (as opposed to "Canadian hockey", an informal name for ice hockey), is another traditionally popular ice sport, with national league games averaging around 3,500 spectators.[236] It's considered a national sport.[237] The Soviet Union national bandy team won all the Bandy World Championships from 1957 to 1979. The Russian team is the reigning world champion since the 2014 tournament, having defended the title in 2015.[citation needed]
Football
Martial arts
Russia has an extensive history of martial arts. Some of its best-known forms include the
National symbols
State symbols
State symbols of Russia include the
Unofficial symbols
The
Tourism
Tourism in Russia has seen rapid growth since the late Soviet times, first inner tourism and then international tourism as well. Rich cultural heritage and great natural variety place Russia among the
Cultural tourism
Most popular tourist destinations in Russia are Moscow and
Resorts and nature tourism
The warm subtropical
The most famous natural tourist destination in Russia is Lake Baikal, named the Blue Eye of Siberia. This unique lake, oldest and deepest in the world, has crystal-clean waters and is surrounded by taiga-covered mountains.[citation needed]
Other popular natural destinations include
See also
- Slavs: East Slavs
- Material culture in Russia
- List of Russian people
- List of museums in Russia
- List of Russian-language poets
- List of Russian-language novelists
- List of Russian-language playwrights
- Culture of the Soviet Union
- Culture of Tatarstan
- Culture of the Russian Armed Forces
References
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