Cuniculture
Cuniculture is the
History
Early husbandry
An abundance of ancient rabbits may have played a part in the naming of Spain. Phoenician sailors visiting its coast around the 12th century BC mistook the European rabbit for the familiar rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) of their homeland. They named their discovery i-shepan-ham, meaning 'land [or island] of hyraxes'. A theory exists (though it is somewhat controversial)[citation needed] that a corruption of this name used by the Romans became Hispania, the Latin name for the Iberian Peninsula.[1]
Domestication of the European rabbit rose slowly from a combination of game-keeping and
Domestication
While under the warren system, rabbits were managed and harvested, but not domesticated. The practice of rabbit domestication also came from Rome. Christian
Early breeds
Rabbits were typically kept as part of the household livestock by peasants and villagers throughout Europe. Husbandry of the rabbits, including collecting weeds and grasses for fodder, typically fell to the children of the household or farmstead. These rabbits were largely 'common' or 'meat' rabbits and not of a particular breed, although regional strains and types did arise. Some of these strains remain as regional breeds, such as the Gotland of Sweden,[2]: 190 while others, such as the Land Kaninchen, a spotted rabbit of Germany, have become extinct.[2]: 15 Another rabbit type that standardized into a breed was the Brabancon, a meat rabbit of the region of Limbourg and what is now Belgium. Rabbits of this breed were bred for the Ostend port market, destined for London markets.[2]: 10 The development of the refrigerated shipping vessels led to the eventual collapse of the European meat rabbit trade, as the over-populated feral rabbits in Australia could now be harvested and sold.[5] The Brabancon is now considered extinct, although a descendant, the Dutch breed, remains a popular small rabbit for the pet trade.[2]: 9
In addition to being harvested for meat, properly prepared rabbit pelts were also an economic factor. Both wild rabbits and domestic rabbit pelts were valued, and it followed that pelts of particular rabbits would be more highly prized. As far back as 1631, price differentials were noted between ordinary rabbit pelts and the pelts of quality 'riche' rabbit in the Champagne region of France. (This regional type would go on to be recognized as the Champagne D'Argent, the 'silver rabbit of Champagne'.)[2]: 68
Among the earliest of the commercial breeds was the
: 48–49Expansion around the globe
European explorers and sailors took rabbits with them to new ports around the world, and brought new varieties back to Europe and England with them. With the
International commercial use
With the rise of scientific animal breeding in the late 1700s, led by Robert Bakewell[clarification needed] (among others), distinct livestock breeds were developed for specific purposes.[3]: 354–355
Rabbits were among the last of the domestic animals to have these principles applied to them, but the rabbit's rapid reproductive cycle allowed for marked progress towards a breeding goal in a short period of time. Additionally, rabbits could be kept on a small area, with a single person caring for over 300 breeding does on an acre of land.[2]: 120 Rabbit breeds were developed by individuals, cooperatives, and by national breeding centers. To meet various production goals, rabbits were exported around the world. One of the most notable import events was the introduction of the Belgian Hare breed of rabbit from Europe to the United States, beginning in 1888.[2]: 86 This led to a short-lived "boom" in rabbit breeding, selling, and speculation, when a quality breeding animal could bring $75 to $200. (For comparison, the average daily wage at the time was approximately $1.)[2]: 88 In 1900, a single animal-export company recorded 6,000 rabbits successfully shipped to the United States and Canada.[2]: 90
Science played another role in rabbit raising, this time with rabbits themselves as the tools used for scientific advancement. Beginning with
Rise of the fancy
The final leg of rabbit breeding—beyond meat, wool, fur, and laboratory use—was the breeding of 'fancy' animals as pets and curiosities. The term 'fancy' was originally applied to long-eared 'lop' rabbits, as they were the first type to be bred for exhibition.
This club eventually expanded to become the British Rabbit Council.[2]: 441–443 Meanwhile, in the United States, clubs promoting various breeds were chartered in the 1880s, and the National Pet Stock Association was formed in 1910. This organization would become the American Rabbit Breeders Association.[2]: 425–429 Thousands of rabbit shows take place each year and are sanctioned in Canada, Mexico, Malaysia, Indonesia and the United States by ARBA.[8]
With the advent of national-level organizations, rabbit breeders had a framework for establishing breeds and varieties utilizing recognized standards, and breeding for rabbit exhibitions began to expand rapidly. Such organizations and associations were also established across Europe—most notably in Germany, France, and Scandinavia[2]: 448 —allowing for the recognition of local breeds (many of which shared similar characteristics across national borders) and for the preservation of stock during disruptions such as World War I and World War II.[citation needed]
Closely overlapping with breeding for exhibition and for fur has been the breeding of rabbits for the pet trade. While rabbits have been kept as companions for centuries, the sale of rabbits as pets began to rise in the last half of the twentieth century. This may have been, in part, because rabbits require less physical space than dogs or cats, and do not require a specialized habitat like
Modern farming
Outside of the exhibition circles, rabbit raising remained a small-scale but persistent household and farm endeavor, in many locations unregulated by the rules that governed the production of larger livestock. With the ongoing urbanization of populations worldwide, rabbit raising gradually declined, but saw resurgences in both Europe and North America during World War II, in conjunction with victory gardens.[9][10][11] Eventually, farmers across Europe and in the United States began to approach cuniculture with the same scientific principles as had already been applied to the production of grains, poultry, and hoofed livestock. National agriculture breeding stations were established to improve local rabbit strains and to introduce more productive breeds. National breeding centers focused on developing strains for production purposes, including meat, pelts, and wool.[2]: 119
The World Rabbit Science Association (WRSA), formed in 1976, was established "to facilitate in all possible ways the exchange of knowledge and experience among persons in all parts of the world who are contributing to the advancement of the various branches of the rabbit industry". The WRSA organizes a world conference every four years.[15]
Present day (2000–present)
Approximately 1.2 billion rabbits are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide.
In August 2022, an animal rights campaign group in the UK called "Shut Down T&S Rabbits" succeeded in closing down a network of rabbit meat and fur farms across the East Midlands region.[20]
The specific future direction of cuniculture is unclear, but does not appear to be in danger of disappearing in any particular part of the world. The variety of applications, as well as the versatile utility of the species, appears sufficient to keep rabbit raising a going concern in one aspect or another around the planet.[vague][citation needed]
Aspects of rabbit production
Meat rabbits
Rabbits have been raised for meat production in a variety of settings around the world. Smallholder or backyard operations remain common in many countries, while large-scale commercial operations are centered in Europe and Asia. For the smaller enterprise, multiple local rabbit breeds may be easier to use.
Many local, "rustico", landrace or other heritage type breeds may be used only in a specific geographic area. Sub-par or "cull" animals from other breeding goals (laboratory, exhibition, show, wool, or pet) may also be used for meat, particularly in smallholder operations.[citation needed]
Counterintuitively, the giant rabbit breeds are rarely used for meat production, due to their extended growth rates (which lead to high feed costs) and their large bone size (which reduces the percentage of their weight that is usable meat). Dwarf breeds, too, are rarely used, due to the high production costs, slow growth, and low offspring rate.[citation needed]
In contrast to the multitude of breeds and types used in smaller operations, breeds such as the New Zealand and the Californian, along with hybrids of these breeds, are most frequently utilized for meat in commercial rabbitries. The primary qualities of good meat-rabbit breeding stock are growth rate and size at slaughter, but also good mothering ability. Specific lines of commercial breeds have been developed that maximize these qualities – rabbits may be slaughtered as early as seven weeks and does of these strains routinely raise litters of 8 to 12 kits. Other breeds of rabbit developed for commercial meat production include the Florida White and the Altex.
Rabbit breeding stock raised in France is particularly popular with meat rabbit farmers internationally, some being purchased as far away as China in order to improve the local rabbit herd.[21]
Larger-scale operations attempt to maximize income by balancing land use, labor required, animal health, and investment in infrastructure. Specific infrastructure and strain qualities depend on the geographic area. An operation in an urban area may emphasize odor control and space utilization by stacking cages over each other with automatic cleaning systems that flush away faeces and urine. In rural
Breeding schedules for rabbits vary by individual operation. Prior to the development of modern balanced rabbit rations, rabbit breeding was limited by the nutrition available to the doe. Without adequate calories and protein, the doe would either not be fertile, would abort or
In efficient production systems, rabbits can turn 20 percent of the proteins they eat into edible meat, compared to 22 to 23 percent for
"Rabbit fryers" are rabbits that are between 70 and 90 days old, weighing 1.5 to 2.5 kilograms (3–5 lb) in live weight. "Rabbit roasters" are rabbits from 90 days to 6 months old, weighing 2.5–3.5 kg (5–8 lb) in live weight. "Rabbit stewers" are rabbits 6 months or older, weighing over 3.5 kg (8 lb). "Dark fryers" (i.e., any color other than white) typically garner a lower price than "white fryers" (also called "albino fryers"), because of the slightly darker tinge to the meat. (Purely pink carcasses are preferred by most consumers.) Dark fryers are also harder to de-hide (skin) than white fryers.[citation needed]
In the United States, white fryers garner the highest prices per pound of live weight. In Europe, however, a sizable market remains for the dark fryers that come from older and larger rabbits. In the kitchen, dark fryers are typically prepared differently from white fryers.[citation needed]
In 1990, the world's annual production of rabbit meat was estimated to be 1.5 million tonnes.[23] In 2014, the number was estimated at 2 million tonnes.[21] China is among the world's largest producers and consumers of rabbit meat, accounting for some 30% of the world's total consumption. Within China itself, rabbits are raised in many provinces, with most of the rabbit meat (about 70% of the national production, equaling some 420,000 tonnes annually) being consumed in the Sichuan Basin (Sichuan Province and Chongqing), where it is particularly popular.[21]
Well-known chef Mark Bittman wrote that domesticated rabbit "tastes like chicken", because both are "blank palettes on which we can layer whatever flavors we like".[24]
Wool rabbits and pelt rabbits
Wool rabbits
Rabbits such as the
Pelt rabbits
A number of rabbit breeds have been developed with the fur trade in mind. Breeds such as the
Exhibition rabbits
Many rabbit keepers breed their rabbits for competition among other purebred rabbits of the same breed. Rabbits are judged according to the standards put forth by the governing associations of the particular country. These associations, being made up of people, may be distinctly political and reflect the preferences of particular persons on the governing boards. However, as mechanisms to preserve rare rabbit breeds, foster communication between breeders and encourage the education of the public, these organizations are invaluable. Examples include the American Rabbit Breeders Association and the British Rabbit Council.[citation needed]
Laboratory rabbits
Rabbits have been and continue to be used in
Rabbit cultivation intersects with research in two ways: first, the keeping and raising of animals for testing of scientific principles. Some experiments require the keeping of several generations of animals treated with a particular drug, in order to fully appreciate the side effects of that drug. There is also the matter of breeding and raising animals for experiments. The New Zealand White is one of the most commonly used breeds for research and testing. Specific strains of the New Zealand White have been developed, with differing resistance to disease and cancers. Additionally, some experiments call for the use of 'specific pathogen free' animals, which require specific husbandry and intensive hygiene.[citation needed]
Husbandry
Modern methods for housing domestic rabbits vary from region to region around the globe and by type of rabbit, technological or financial opportunities and constraints, intended use, number of animals kept, and the particular preferences of the owner or farmer. Various goals include maximizing number of animals per land unit (especially common in areas with high land values or small living areas) minimizing labor, reducing cost, increasing survival and health of animals, and meeting specific market requirements (such as for clean wool, or rabbits raised on pasture). Not all of these goals are complementary. Where the keeping of rabbits has been regulated by governments, specific requirements have been put in place. Various industries also have commonly accepted practices which produce predictable results for that type of rabbit product.[citation needed]
-
Armenia in 2009
-
Macedonia in 2013
-
France in 2015
-
Germany in 2017
-
Japan in 2016
-
India in 2016
-
Poland in 2009
-
Bangladesh in 2013
-
Hungary in 2015
Extensive cuniculture practices
Extensive cuniculture refers to the practice of keeping rabbits at a lower density and a lower production level than intensive culture. Specifically as relates to rabbits, this type of production was nearly universal prior to
Intensive cuniculture practices
Intensive cuniculture is more focused, efficient, and time-sensitive, utilizing a greater density of animals and higher turnover. The labor required to produce each harvested hide, kilogram of wool, or market fryer—and the quality thereof—may be higher or lower than for extensive methods. Successful operations raising healthy rabbits that produce durable goods range from thousands of animals to less than a dozen. Simple hutches, kitchen floors, and even natural pits may provide shelter from the elements, while the rabbits are fed from the garden or given what can be gathered as they grow to produce a community's foodstuffs and textiles. Intensive cuniculture can also be practiced in an enclosed, climate controlled barn where rows of cages house robust rabbits eating pellets and treats before a daily health inspection or weekly weight check. Veterinary specialists and biosecurity may be part of large-scale operations, while individual rabbits in smaller setups may receive better—or worse—care.[citation needed]
Challenges to successful production
Specific challenges to the keeping of rabbits vary by specific practices. Losses from coccidiosis are much more common when rabbits are kept on the ground (such as in warrens or colonies) or on solid floors than when in wire or slat cages that keep rabbits elevated away from urine and faeces. Pastured rabbits are more subject to predator attack. Rabbits kept indoors at an appropriate temperature rarely suffer heat loss compared to rabbits housed outdoors in summer. At the same time, if rabbits are housed inside without adequate ventilation, respiratory disease can be a significant cause of illness and death. Production does on fodder are rarely able to raise more than 3 litters a year without heavy losses from deaths of weak kits,
Exhibition and fancier societies
In the early 1900s, as animal fancy in general began to emerge, rabbit fanciers began to sponsor rabbit exhibitions and fairs in Western Europe and the United States. What became known as the "Belgian Hare Boom" began with the importation of the first Belgian Hares from England in 1888 and soon after the founding of the first rabbit club in America, the American Belgian Hare Association. From 1898 to 1901, many thousands of Belgian Hares were imported to America.[28] Today, the Belgian Hare is considered one of the rarest breeds, with less than 200 in the United States as reported in a recent survey.[29]
The American Rabbit Breeders Association (ARBA) was founded in 1910 and is the national authority on rabbit raising and rabbit breeds, having a uniform "Standard of Perfection", registration and judging system.[citation needed]
Conformation shows
Showing rabbits is an increasingly popular activity. Showing rabbits helps to improve the vigor and physical behavior of each breed through competitive selection.
Genetics
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2021) |
The study of rabbit genetics is of interest to medical researchers, fanciers, and the fur and meat industries. Each of these groups has different needs for genetic information. In the biomedical research community and the
The rabbit genome has been sequenced and is publicly available.[31] The mitochondrial DNA has also been sequenced.[32] In 2011, parts of the rabbit genome were re-sequenced in greater depth in order to expose variation within the genome.[33]
Gene linkage maps
The early genetic research focused on linkage distance between various gross
- c: albino
- y: yellow fat
- du: Dutch coloring
- En: English coloring
- l: angora
- r1, r2: rex genes
- A: Agouti
- dw: dwarf gene
- w: wide intermediate-color band
- f: furless
- br: brachydactyly
The distance between these genes is as follows, numbered by chromosome. The format is gene1—distance—gene2. [34]
- c — 14.4 — y — 28.4 — b
- du — 1.2 — En — 13.1 — l
- r1 — 17.2 — r2
- A — 14.7 — dw — 15.4 — w
- f — 28.3 — br
Color genes
There are 11 color
Within each group, the genes are listed in order of dominance, with the most dominant gene first. In parentheses after the description is at least one example of a color that displays this gene.
- Note: lower case are recessive and capital letters are dominant
- "A" represents the agouti locus (multiple bands of color on the hair shaft). The genes are:
- A: agouti ("wild color" or chestnut agouti, opal, chinchilla, etc.)
- a(t): tan pattern (otter, tan, silver marten)
- a: self- or non-agouti (black, chocolate)
- "B" represents the brown locus. The genes are:
- B: black (chestnut agouti, black otter, black)
- b: brown (chocolate agouti, chocolate otter, chocolate)
- "C" represents the color locus. The genes are:
- C: full color (black)
- c(ch3): dark chinchilla, removes yellow pigmentation (chinchilla, silver marten)
- c(ch2): medium (light) chinchilla, slight reduction in eumelanin creating a more sepia tone in the fur rather than black.
- c(ch1): light (pale) chinchilla (sable, sable point, smoke pearl, seal)
- c(h): color sensitive expression of color. Warmer parts of the body do not express color. Known as Himalayan, the body is white with extremities (points) colored in black, blue, chocolate or lilac. Pink eyes.
- c: albino (ruby-eyed white or REW)
- "D" represents the dilution locus. This gene dilutes black to blue and chocolate to lilac.[37]
- D: dense color (chestnut agouti, black, chocolate)
- d: diluted color (opal, blue or lilac)
- "E" represents the extension locus. It works with the 'A' and 'C' loci and rufous modifiers. When it is recessive, it removes most black pigment. The genes are:
- E(d): dominant black
- E(s): steel (black removed from tips of fur, which then appear golden or silver)
- E: normal
- e(j): Japanese brindling (harlequin), black and yellow pigment broken into patches over the body. In a broken color pattern, this results in Tricolor.
- e: most black pigment removed (agouti becomes red or orange, self- becomes tortoise)
- "En" represents the plus/minus (blanket/spot) color locus. It is incompletely dominantand results in three possible color patterns:
- EnEn: "Charlie" or a lightly marked broken with color on ears, on nose, and sparsely on body
- Enen: "Broken" with roughly even distribution of color and white
- enen: Solid color with no white areas
- "Du" represents the Dutch color pattern (the front of the face, the front part of the body, and rear paws are white; the rest of the rabbit has colored fur). The genes are:
- Du: absence of Dutch pattern
- du(d): Dutch (dark)
- du(w): Dutch (white)
- "V" represents the vienna white locus. The genes are:
- V: normal color
- Vv: Vienna carrier; carries blue-eyed white gene. May appear as a solid color, with snips of white on nose and/or front paws, or Dutch marked.
- v: vienna white (blue-eyed white or BEW)
- "Si" represents the silver locus. The genes are:
- Si: normal color
- si: silver color (silver, silver fox)
- "W" represents the middle yellow-white band locus and works with the agouti gene. The genes are:
- W: normal width of yellow band
- w: doubles yellow bandwidth (otter becomes tan, intensified red factors in Thrianta and Belgian Hare)
- "P" represents the P protein mutation. The genes are:
- P: normal color
- p: albinism mutation. Removes eumelanin and causes pink eyes. (Will change, for example, a chestnut agouti into a shadow)
See also
References
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- ^ Hreiz, Jay (May–June 2012). "Domestic Rabbits". Domestic Rabbits. Vol. 40, no. 3. American Rabbit Breeders Association. p. 75.
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- ^ Foster, M. (September 1996). "Structure of the Australian Rabbit Industry" (PDF). ABARE Report. pp. 8–9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
- ^ Lebas, Francois. "Constitution of the World Rabbit Science Association". World Rabbit Science Association. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
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- ^ "HRS Activist Corner". House Rabbit Society. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
- ^ Hottle, Molly. "23 Rabbits Stolen from Portland Meat Collective Farmer". The Oregonian. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
- ^ "Interview: How we shut down T&S rabbit breeders". September 2022.
- ^ a b c Geng, Olivia (12 June 2014). "French Rabbit Heads: The Newest Delicacy in Chinese Cuisine". Wall Street Journal.
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- ^ "How to Cook Everything: Braised Rabbit with Olives". 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-05-17. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
- ^ Kulpa-Eddy, Jodie; Snyder, Margaret; Stokes, William. "A review of trends in animal use in the United States (1972–2006)" (PDF). AATEX (14). Proc. 6th World Congress on Alternatives & Animal Use in the Life Sciences: 163–165. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-13.
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- ^ "Official Show Rules". American Rabbit Breeders Association. 2009.
{{cite journal}}
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- ^ Hinkle, Amy. "Rabbit [Color] Genes" (PDF). Amy's Rabbit Ranch. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
- ^ Hinkle, Amy. "[Rabbit Color] Genotypes" (PDF). Amy's Rabbit Ranch. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2011. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
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External links
- World Rabbit Science Association
- Russian Branch of the World Rabbit Science Association
- Belarusian Rabbit Breeders Public Association
- View the rabbit genome in Ensembl
- View the oryCun2 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.