Curtiss P-40 Warhawk
P-40 Warhawk Tomahawk / Kittyhawk | |
---|---|
A restored P-40M Warhawk landing at Season Premier Airshow, in Shuttleworth, UK | |
Role | Fighter aircraft |
National origin | United States |
Manufacturer | Curtiss-Wright |
First flight | 14 October 1938[1] |
Introduction | 1939 |
Retired | Brazilian Air Force (1958) |
Primary users | United States Army Air Forces Royal Air Force Royal Australian Air Force Royal Canadian Air Force |
Produced | 1939–1944 |
Number built | 13,738[2] |
Developed from | Curtiss P-36 Hawk |
Variants | Curtiss XP-46 |
The Curtiss P-40 Warhawk is an American single-engined, single-seat, all-metal
P-40 Warhawk was the name the
The lack of a two-speed supercharger for the P-40's Allison V-1710 engine's made it inferior to Luftwaffe fighters such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109 or the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 in high-altitude combat and it was rarely used in operations in Northwest Europe. However, between 1941 and 1944, the P-40 played a critical role with Allied air forces in three major theaters: North Africa, the Southwest Pacific, and China. It also had a significant role in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, Alaska and Italy. The P-40's performance at high altitudes was not as important in those theaters, where it served as an air superiority fighter, bomber escort and fighter-bomber.
Although it gained a postwar reputation as a mediocre design, suitable only for close air support, more recent research including scrutiny of the records of Allied squadrons indicates that this was not the case; the P-40 performed surprisingly well as an air superiority fighter, at times suffering severe losses, but also inflicting a very heavy toll on enemy aircraft.[9] Based on war-time victory claims, over 200 Allied fighter pilots – from the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, the US and the Soviet Union – became aces flying the P-40. These included at least 20 double aces, mostly over North Africa, China, Burma and India, the South West Pacific and Eastern Europe.[10] The P-40 offered the additional advantages of low cost and durability, which kept it in production as a ground-attack aircraft long after it was obsolescent as a fighter.
Design and development
Origins
On 14 October 1938, Curtiss test pilot Edward Elliott flew the prototype XP-40 on its first flight in Buffalo.[11] The XP-40 was the 10th production Curtiss P-36 Hawk,[12] with its Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp 14-cylinder air-cooled radial engine replaced at the direction of Chief Engineer Don R. Berlin by a liquid-cooled, supercharged Allison V-1710 V-12 engine. The first prototype placed the glycol coolant radiator in an underbelly position on the fighter, just aft of the wing's trailing edge.[13] USAAC Fighter Projects Officer Lieutenant Benjamin S. Kelsey flew this prototype some 300 miles in 57 minutes, approximately 315 miles per hour (507 km/h). Hiding his disappointment, he told reporters that future versions would likely go 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) faster.[14] Kelsey was interested in the Allison engine because it was sturdy and dependable, and it had a smooth, predictable power curve. The V-12 engine offered as much power as a radial engine but had a smaller frontal area and allowed a more streamlined cowl than an aircraft with a radial engine, promising a theoretical 5% increase in top speed.[15]
Curtiss engineers worked to improve the XP-40's speed by moving the radiator forward in steps. Seeing little gain, Kelsey ordered the aircraft to be evaluated in a
An unusual production feature was a special truck rig to speed delivery at the main Curtiss plant in Buffalo, New York. The rig moved the newly built P-40s in two main components, the main wing and the fuselage, the eight miles from the plant to the airport where the two units were mated for flight and delivery.[19]
Performance characteristics
The P-40 was conceived as a pursuit aircraft and was agile at low and medium altitudes but suffered from a lack of power at higher altitudes. At medium and high speeds it was one of the tightest-turning early monoplane designs of the war,[20] and it could out turn most opponents it faced in North Africa and the Russian Front. In the Pacific Theater it was out-turned at lower speeds by the lightweight fighters Mitsubishi A6M Zero and Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa (known to Allies as "Oscar"). The American Volunteer Group Commander Claire Chennault advised against prolonged dog-fighting with the Japanese fighters due to speed reduction favoring the Japanese.[21]
Allison's V-1710 engines produced 1,040 hp (780 kW) at sea level and 14,000 ft (4,300 m). This was not powerful compared with contemporary fighters, and the early P-40 variants' top speeds were only average. The single-stage, single-speed
The P-40 tolerated harsh conditions and a variety of climates. Its semi-
Caldwell found the P-40C Tomahawk's armament of two .50-inch (13 mm)
Curtiss tested a follow-on design, the Curtiss XP-46, but it offered little improvement over newer P-40 models and was cancelled.[26]
Operational history
In April 1939, the U.S. Army Air Corps, having witnessed the new, sleek, high-speed, in-line-engined fighters of the European air forces, placed the largest fighter order it had ever made for 524 P-40s.
French Air Force
An early order came from the French
In late 1942, as French forces in North Africa split from the
British Commonwealth
Deployment
In all, 18 Royal Air Force (RAF) squadrons, four Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), three South African Air Force (SAAF) and two Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) squadrons serving with RAF formations, used P-40s.[27][28] The first units to convert were Hawker Hurricane squadrons of the Desert Air Force (DAF), in early 1941. The first Tomahawks delivered came without armor, bulletproof windscreens or self-sealing fuel tanks, which were installed in subsequent shipments. Pilots used to British fighters sometimes found it difficult to adapt to the P-40's rear-folding landing gear, which was more prone to collapse than the lateral-folding landing gear of the Hurricane or Supermarine Spitfire. In contrast to the "three-point landing" commonly employed with British types, P-40 pilots were obliged to use a "wheels landing": a longer, low angle approach that touched down on the main wheels first.
Testing showed the aircraft did not have the performance needed for use in
The Tomahawk was superseded in North Africa by the more powerful Kittyhawk ("D"-mark onwards) types from early 1942, though some Tomahawks remained in service until 1943. Kittyhawks included many improvements and were the DAF's air superiority fighter for the critical first few months of 1942, until "tropicalised" Supermarine Spitfires were available. DAF units received nearly 330 Packard V-1650 Merlin-powered P-40Fs, called Kittyhawk IIs, most of which went to the USAAF and the majority of the 700 "lightweight" L models, also powered by the Packard Merlin, in which the armament was reduced to four .50 in (12.7 mm) Brownings (Kittyhawk IIA). The DAF also received some 21 of the later P-40K and the majority of the 600 P-40Ms built; these were known as Kittyhawk IIIs. The "lightweight" P-40Ns (Kittyhawk IV) arrived from early 1943 and were used mostly as fighter-bombers.[N 4] From July 1942 until mid-1943, elements of the U.S. 57th Fighter Group (57th FG) were attached to DAF P-40 units. The British government also donated 23 P-40s to the Soviet Union.
Combat performance
Tomahawks and Kittyhawks bore the brunt of Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica fighter attacks during the North African campaign. The P-40s were considered superior to the Hurricane, which they replaced as the primary fighter of the Desert Air Force.[9]
I would evade being shot at accurately by pulling so much g-force...that you could feel the blood leaving the head and coming down over your eyes... And you would fly like that for as long as you could, knowing that if anyone was trying to get on your tail they were going through the same bleary vision that you had and you might get away... I had deliberately decided that any deficiency the Kittyhawk had was offset by aggression. And I'd done a little bit of boxing – I beat much better opponents simply by going for [them]. And I decided to use that in the air. And it paid off.
The P-40 initially proved quite effective against Axis aircraft and contributed to a slight shift of advantage in the Allies' favor. The gradual replacement of Hurricanes by the Tomahawks and Kittyhawks led to the Luftwaffe accelerating retirement of the Bf 109E and introducing the newer Bf 109F; these were to be flown by the veteran pilots of elite Luftwaffe units, such as Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG27), in North Africa.[31] The P-40 was generally considered roughly equal or slightly superior to the Bf 109 at low altitude but inferior at high altitude, particularly against the Bf 109F.[32] Most air combat in North Africa took place well below 16,000 ft (4,900 m), negating much of the Bf 109's superiority. The P-40 usually had an advantage over the Bf 109 in turning, dive speed and structural strength, was roughly equal in firepower but was slightly inferior in speed and outclassed in rate of climb and operational ceiling.[9][31]
The P-40 was generally superior to early Italian fighter types, such as the
The earliest victory claims by P-40 pilots include
Some DAF units initially failed to use the P-40's strengths or used outdated defensive tactics such as the
From 26 May 1942, Kittyhawk units operated primarily as fighter-bomber units, giving rise to the nickname "Kittybomber".[42] As a result of this change in role and because DAF P-40 squadrons were frequently used in bomber escort and close air support missions, they suffered relatively high losses; many Desert Air Force P-40 pilots were caught flying low and slow by marauding Bf 109s.
Unit | 3 Sqn RAAF | 112 Sqn RAF | 450 Sqn RAAF* | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Claims with Tomahawks | 41 | 36 | – | |
Claims with Kittyhawks | 74.5 | 82.5 | 49 | |
Total P-40 claims | 115.5 | 118.5 | 49 | |
P-40 losses (total) | 34 | 38 | 28 | |
* Began conversion to P-40s in December 1941; operational in February 1942.[43] |
Caldwell believed that
Competent pilots who took advantage of the P-40's strengths were effective against the best of the Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica.[9][45] In August 1941, Caldwell was attacked by two Bf 109s, one of them piloted by German ace Werner Schröer. Although Caldwell was wounded three times and his Tomahawk was hit by more than 100 7.92 mm (0.312 in) bullets and five 20 mm cannon shells, Caldwell shot down Schröer's wingman and returned to base. Some sources also claim that in December 1941, Caldwell killed a prominent German Experte, Erbo von Kageneck (69 kills), while flying a P-40.[N 5] Caldwell's victories in North Africa included 10 Bf 109s and two Macchi C.202s.[47] Billy Drake of 112 Squadron was the leading British P-40 ace with 13 victories.[45] James "Stocky" Edwards (RCAF), who achieved 12 kills in the P-40 in North Africa, shot down German ace Otto Schulz (51 kills) while flying a Kittyhawk with No. 260 Squadron RAF.[45] Caldwell, Drake, Edwards and Nicky Barr were among at least a dozen pilots who achieved ace status twice over while flying the P-40.[45][48] A total of 46 British Commonwealth pilots became aces in P-40s, including seven double aces.[45]
Chinese Air Force
Flying Tigers (American Volunteer Group)
The Flying Tigers, known officially as the 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG), were a unit of the Chinese Air Force, recruited from amongst U.S. Navy, Marine Corps and Army aviators and ground crew.
AVG leader Claire Chennault received crated Model Bs which his airmen assembled in Burma at the end of 1941, adding self-sealing fuel tanks and a second pair of wing guns, such that the aircraft became a hybrid of B and C models.[50] These were not well-liked by their pilots: they lacked drop tanks for extra range, and there were no bomb racks on the wings. Chennault considered the liquid-cooled engine vulnerable in combat because a single bullet through the coolant system would cause the engine to overheat in minutes. The Tomahawks also had no radios, so the AVG improvised by installing a fragile radio transceiver, the RCA-7-H, which had been built for a Piper Cub. Because the plane had a single-stage low-altitude supercharger,[51] its effective ceiling was about 25,000 feet (7,600 m). The most critical problem was the lack of spare parts; the only source was from damaged aircraft. The planes were viewed as cast-offs that no one else wanted, dangerous and difficult to fly. But the pilots did appreciate some of the planes' features. There were two heavy sheets of steel behind the pilot's head and back that offered solid protection, and overall the planes were ruggedly constructed.[52]
Compared to opposing Japanese fighters, the P-40B's strengths were that it was sturdy, well armed, faster in a dive and possessed an excellent rate of roll. While the P-40s could not match the maneuverability of the Japanese Army air arm's Nakajima Ki-27s and Ki-43s, nor the much more famous Zero naval fighter in slow, turning dogfights, at higher speeds the P-40s were more than a match. Chennault trained his pilots to use the P-40's particular performance advantages.[53] The P-40 had a higher dive speed than any Japanese fighter aircraft of the early war years, for example, and could exploit so-called "boom-and-zoom" tactics. The AVG was highly successful, and its feats were widely publicized by an active cadre of international journalists to boost sagging public morale at home. According to its official records, in just 6+1⁄2 months, the Flying Tigers destroyed 297 enemy aircraft for the loss of just four of its own in air-to-air combat.
In the spring of 1942, the AVG received a small number of Model E's. Each came equipped with a radio, six .50-caliber machine guns, and auxiliary bomb racks that could hold 35-lb fragmentation bombs. Chennault's armorer added bomb racks for 570-lb Russian bombs, which the Chinese had in abundance. These planes were used in the battle of the Salween River Gorge in late May 1942, which kept the Japanese from entering China from Burma and threatening Kunming. Spare parts, however, remained in short supply. "Scores of new planes...were now in India, and there they stayed—in case the Japanese decided to invade... the AVG was lucky to get a few tires and spark plugs with which to carry on its daily war."[54]
4th Air Group
China received 27 P-40E models in early 1943. These were assigned to squadrons of the 4th Air Group.[55]
United States Army Air Forces
A total of 15 USAAF pursuit/fighter
Pacific theaters
The P-40 was the main USAAF fighter aircraft in the
In the
The 49th Fighter Group was in action in the Pacific from the beginning of the war. Robert M. DeHaven scored 10 kills (of 14 overall) in the P-40 with the 49th FG. He compared the P-40 favorably with the P-38:
- "If you flew wisely, the P-40 was a very capable aircraft. [It] could outturn a P-38, a fact that some pilots didn't realize when they made the transition between the two aircraft. [...] The real problem with it was lack of range. As we pushed the Japanese back, P-40 pilots were slowly left out of the war. So when I moved to P-38s, an excellent aircraft, I did not [believe] that the P-40 was an inferior fighter, but because I knew the P-38 would allow us to reach the enemy. I was a fighter pilot and that was what I was supposed to do."[63]
The 8th, 15th, 18th, 24th, 49th, 343rd and 347th PGs/FGs, flew P-40s in the Pacific theaters between 1941 and 1945, with most units converting to P-38s from 1943 to 1944. In 1945, the 71st Reconnaissance Group employed them as armed
Contrary to conventional wisdom, with sufficient altitude, the P-40 could turn with the A6M and other Japanese fighters, using a combination of a nose-down vertical turn with a bank turn, a technique known as a low yo-yo. Robert DeHaven describes how this tactic was used in the 49th Fighter group:
- [Y]ou could fight a Jap on even terms, but you had to make him fight your way. He could outturn you at slow speed. You could outturn him at high speed. When you got into a turning fight with him, you dropped your nose down so you kept your airspeed up, you could outturn him. At low speed he could outroll you because of those big ailerons ... on the Zero. If your speed was up over 275, you could outroll [a Zero]. His big ailerons didn't have the strength to make high speed rolls... You could push things, too. Because ... [i]f you decided to go home, you could go home. He couldn't because you could outrun him. [...] That left you in control of the fight.
China Burma India Theater
USAAF and Chinese P-40 pilots performed well in this theater against many Japanese types such as the Ki-43,
Units arriving in the CBI after the AVG in the 10th and 14th Air Forces continued to perform well with the P-40,
Europe and Mediterranean theaters
On 14 August 1942, the first confirmed victory by a USAAF unit over a German aircraft in World War II was initiated by a P-40C pilot. 2nd Lt Joseph D. Shaffer, of the 33rd Fighter Squadron, intercepted a
P-40 pilots from the 57th FG were the first USAAF fliers to see action in the MTO, while attached to Desert Air Force Kittyhawk squadrons, from July 1942. The 57th was also the main unit involved in the "
On 22 April, in
The 325th FG (known as the "Checkertail Clan") flew P-40s in the MTO and was credited with at least 133 air-to-air kills from April–October 1943, of which 95 were Bf 109s and 26 were Macchi C.202s, for the loss of 17 P-40s in combat.[57][71] The 325th FG historian Carol Cathcart wrote:
on 30 July, 20 P-40s of the 317th [Fighter Squadron] ... took off on a fighter sweep ... over Sardinia. As they turned to fly south over the west part of the island, they were attacked near Sassari... The attacking force consisted of 25 to 30 Bf 109s and Macchi C.202s... In the brief, intense battle that occurred ... [the 317th claimed] 21 enemy aircraft.
— Cathcart[72]
Cathcart wrote that Lt. Robert Sederberg assisted a comrade being attacked by five Bf 109s, destroyed at least one German aircraft, and may have shot down as many as five. Sederberg was shot down and became a prisoner of war.[72]
A famous
The much-lightened P-40L was most heavily used in the MTO, primarily by U.S. pilots. Many US pilots stripped down their P-40s even further to improve performance, often removing two or more of the wing guns to improve the roll rate.
Royal Australian Air Force
The Kittyhawk was the main fighter used by the RAAF in World War II, in greater numbers than the Spitfire. Two RAAF squadrons serving with the Desert Air Force, No. 3 and No. 450 Squadrons, were the first Australian units to be assigned P-40s. Other RAAF pilots served with RAF or SAAF P-40 squadrons in the theater.
Many RAAF pilots achieved high scores in the P-40. At least five reached "double ace" status: Clive Caldwell, Nicky Barr, John Waddy, Bob Whittle (11 kills each) and Bobby Gibbes (10 kills) in the Middle East, North African and/or New Guinea campaigns. In all, 18 RAAF pilots became aces while flying P-40s.[45]
Nicky Barr, like many Australian pilots, considered the P-40 a reliable mount: "The Kittyhawk became, to me, a friend. It was quite capable of getting you out of trouble more often than not. It was a real warhorse."[75]
At the same time as the heaviest fighting in North Africa, the
RAAF Kittyhawks played a crucial role in the
The RAAF units that most used Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific were 75, 76,
Late in 1945, RAAF fighter squadrons in the South West Pacific began converting to P-51Ds. However, Kittyhawks were in use with the RAAF until the end of the war, in Borneo. In all, the RAAF acquired 841 Kittyhawks (not counting the British-ordered examples used in North Africa), including 163 P-40E, 42 P-40K, 90 P-40 M and 553 P-40N models.
Royal Canadian Air Force
A total of 13 Royal Canadian Air Force units operated the P-40 in the North West European or Alaskan theaters.
In mid-May 1940, Canadian and US officers watched comparative tests of a XP-40 and a Spitfire, at RCAF Uplands, Ottawa. While the Spitfire was considered to have performed better, it was not available for use in Canada and the P-40 was ordered to meet home air defense requirements. In all, eight Home War Establishment Squadrons were equipped with the Kittyhawk: 72 Kittyhawk I, 12 Kittyhawk Ia, 15 Kittyhawk III and 35 Kittyhawk IV aircraft, for a total of 134 aircraft. These aircraft were mostly diverted from RAF Lend-Lease orders for service in Canada. The P-40 Kittyhawks were obtained in lieu of 144 P-39 Airacobras originally allocated to Canada but reassigned to the RAF.
However, before any home units received the P-40, three RCAF
In 1942, the Imperial Japanese Navy
In January 1943, a further Article XV unit, 430 Squadron was formed at
The squadron converted to the Mustang I before commencing operations in mid-1943.In early 1945 pilots from No. 133 Squadron RCAF, operating the P-40N out of
The RCAF units that operated P-40s were, in order of conversion:
- Article XV squadrons serving in the UK under direct command and control of the RAF, with RAF owned aircraft.
- 403 Squadron(Tomahawk IIA and IIB, March 1941)
- 400 Squadron(Tomahawk I, IIA and IIB, April 1941 – September 1942)
- 414 Squadron(Tomahawk I, IIA and IIB, August 1941 – September 1942)
- 430 Squadron(Tomahawk IIA and IIB, January 1943 – February 1943)
- Operational Squadrons of the Home War Establishment (HWE) (Based in Canada)
- 111 Squadron(Kittyhawk I, IV, November 1941 – December 1943 and P-40K, September 1942 – July 1943),
- 118 Squadron(Kittyhawk I, November 1941 – October 1943),
- 14 Squadron(Kittyhawk I, January 1942 – September 1943),
- 132 Squadron (Kittyhawk IA & III, April 1942 – September 1944),
- 130 Squadron (Kittyhawk I, May 1942 – October 1942),
- 163 Squadron (Kittyhawk I & III, October 1943 – March 1944),
- 133 Squadron (Kittyhawk I, March 1944 – July 1945) and
- 135 Squadron (Kittyhawk IV, May 1944 – September 1945).
Royal New Zealand Air Force
Some Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) pilots and New Zealanders in other air forces flew British P-40s while serving with DAF squadrons in North Africa and Italy, including the ace Jerry Westenra.
A total of 301 P-40s were allocated to the RNZAF under
.RNZAF P-40 squadrons were successful in air combat against the Japanese between 1942 and 1944. Their pilots claimed 100 aerial victories in P-40s, whilst losing 20 aircraft in combat
The overwhelming majority of RNZAF P-40 victories were scored against Japanese fighters, mostly Zeroes. Other victories included Aichi D3A "Val" dive bombers. The only confirmed twin engine claim, a Ki-21 "Sally" (misidentified as a G4M "Betty") fell to Fisken in July 1943.[85]
From late 1943 and 1944, RNZAF P-40s were increasingly used against ground targets, including the innovative use of naval depth charges as improvised high-capacity bombs. The last front line RNZAF P-40s were replaced by Vought F4U Corsairs in 1944. The P-40s were relegated to use as advanced pilot trainers.[86][87][88]
The remaining RNZAF P-40s, excluding the 20 shot down and 154 written off, were mostly scrapped at Rukuhia in 1948.
Soviet Union
The Soviet Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily (VVS; "Military Air Forces") and Morskaya Aviatsiya (MA; "Naval Air Service") also referred to P-40s as "Tomahawks" and "Kittyhawks". In fact, the Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk / Kittyhawk was the first Allied fighter supplied to the USSR under the Lend-Lease agreement.[89] The USSR received 247 P-40B/Cs (equivalent to the Tomahawk IIA/B in RAF service) and 2,178 P-40E, -K, -L, and -N models between 1941 and 1944.[24] The Tomahawks were shipped from Great Britain and directly from the US, many of them arriving incomplete, lacking machine guns and even the lower half of the engine cowling. In late September 1941, the first 48 P-40s were assembled and checked in the USSR.[90][91] Test flights showed some manufacturing defects: generator and oil pump gears and generator shafts failed repeatedly, which led to emergency landings. The test report indicated that the Tomahawk was inferior to Soviet "M-105P-powered production fighters in speed and rate of climb. However, it had good short field performance, horizontal maneuverability, range, and endurance."[92] Nevertheless, Tomahawks and Kittyhawks were used against the Germans. The 126th Fighter Aviation Regiment (IAP), fighting on the Western and Kalinin Fronts, were the first unit to receive the P-40. The regiment entered action on 12 October 1941. By 15 November 1941, the regiment had shot down 17 German aircraft. However, Lt (SG) Smirnov noted that the P-40 armament was sufficient for strafing enemy lines but rather ineffective in aerial combat. Another pilot, Stephan Ridny (a Hero of the Soviet Union), remarked that he had to shoot half the ammunition at 50–100 meters (165–340 ft) to shoot down an enemy aircraft.[92]
In January 1942, some 198 aircraft sorties were flown (334 flying hours) and 11 aerial engagements were conducted, in which five Bf 109s, one Ju 88, and one He 111 were downed. These statistics reveal a surprising fact: it turns out that the Tomahawk was fully capable of successful air combat with a Bf 109. The reports of pilots about the circumstances of the engagements confirm this fact. On 18 January 1942, Lieutenants S. V. Levin and I. P. Levsha (in pair) fought an engagement with seven Bf 109s and shot down two of them without loss. On 22 January, a flight of three aircraft led by Lieutenant E. E. Lozov engaged 13 enemy aircraft and shot down two Bf 109Es, again without loss. Altogether, in January, two Tomahawks were lost; one downed by German anti-aircraft artillery and one lost to Messerschmitts.[24]
The Soviets stripped down their P-40s significantly for combat, in many cases removing the wing guns altogether in P-40B/C types, for example. Soviet Air Force reports state that they liked the range and fuel capacity of the P-40, which were superior to most of the Soviet fighters, though they still preferred the P-39. Soviet pilot Nikolai G. Golodnikov recalled: "The cockpit was vast and high. At first it felt unpleasant to sit waist-high in glass, as the edge of the fuselage was almost at waist level. But the bullet-proof glass and armored seat were strong and visibility was good. The radio was also good. It was powerful, reliable, but only on HF (high frequency). The American radios did not have hand microphones but throat microphones. These were good throat mikes: small, light and comfortable."[93] The biggest complaint of some Soviet airmen was its poor climb rate and problems with maintenance, especially with burning out the engines. VVS pilots usually flew the P-40 at War Emergency Power settings while in combat, which brought acceleration and speed performance closer to that of their German rivals, but could burn out engines in a matter of weeks.[24] Tires and batteries also failed. The fluid in the engine's radiators often froze, cracking their cores, which made the Allison engine unsuitable for operations during harsh winter conditions. During the winter of 1941, the 126th Fighter Aviation Regiment suffered from cracked radiators on 38 occasions. Often, entire regiments were reduced to a single flyable aircraft because no replacement parts were available.[94] They also had difficulty with the more demanding requirements for fuel and oil quality of the Allison engines. A fair number of burned-out P-40s were re-engined with Soviet Klimov M-105 engines, but these performed relatively poorly and were relegated to rear area use.[24]
Actually, the P-40 could engage all Messerschmitts on equal terms, almost to the end of 1943. If you take into consideration all the characteristics of the P-40, then the Tomahawk was equal to the Bf 109F and the Kittyhawk was slightly better. Its speed and vertical and horizontal manoeuvre were good and fully competitive with enemy aircraft. Acceleration rate was a bit low, but when you got used to the engine, it was OK. We considered the P-40 a decent fighter plane.[95]
The P-40 saw the most front line use in Soviet hands in 1942 and early 1943. Deliveries over the Alaska-Siberia
Japan
The
Other nations
The P-40 was used by over two dozen countries during and after the war. The P-40 was used by Brazil, Egypt, Finland and Turkey. The last P-40s in military service, used by the Brazilian Air Force (FAB), were retired in 1954.
In the air war over Finland, several Soviet P-40s were shot down or had to crash-land due to other reasons. The Finns, short of good aircraft, collected these and managed to repair one P-40M, P-40M-10-CU 43–5925, white 23, which received Finnish Air Force serial number KH-51 (KH denoting "Kittyhawk", as the British designation of this type was Kittyhawk III). This aircraft was attached to an operational squadron HLeLv 32 of the Finnish Air Force, but lack of spares kept it on the ground, with the exception of a few evaluation flights.
Several P-40Ns were used by the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force with No. 120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF against the Japanese before being used during the fighting in Indonesia until February 1949.[99]
Variants and development stages
This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2017) |
- XP-40
- The original Curtiss XP-40, ordered July 1937, was converted from the 10th P-36A by replacing the radial engine with a new Allison V-1710-19 engine. It flew for the first time in October 1938.
This new liquid-cooled engine fighter had a radiator mounted under the rear fuselage but the prototype XP-40 was later modified and the radiator was moved forward under the engine.
- P-40
- The P-40 (Curtiss Model 81A-1) was the first production variant, 199 built.
- P-40A
- One P-40 was modified with a camera installation in the rear fuselage and re-designated P-40A.
- Revised versions of the P-40 soon followed: the P-40B or Tomahawk IIA had extra .30 in (7.62 mm) U.S., or .303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns in the wings and a partially protected fuel system; the P-40C or Tomahawk IIB added underbelly drop tank and bomb shackles, self-sealing fuel tanks and other minor revisions, but the extra weight did have a negative impact on aircraft performance. (All versions of the P-40 had a relatively low power-to-weight ratio compared to contemporary fighters.)
- Only a small number of P-40D or Kittyhawk Mk Is were made, fewer than 50. With a new, larger Allison engine, slightly narrower fuselage, redesigned canopy, and improved cockpit, the P-40D eliminated the nose-mounted .50 in (12.7 mm) guns and instead had a pair of .50 in (12.7 mm) guns in each wing. The distinctive chin airscoop grew larger so they could adequately cool the large Allison engine.
- Retrospective designation for a single prototype. The P-40A was a single camera-carrying aircraft.
- The P-40E or P-40E-1 was similar in most respects to the P-40D, except for a slightly more powerful engine and an extra .50 in (12.7 mm) gun in each wing, bringing the total to six. Some aircraft also had small underwing bomb shackles. Supplied to the Commonwealth air forces as the Kittyhawk Mk IA. The P-40E was the variant that bore the brunt of air-to-air combat by the type in the key period of early to mid 1942, for example with the first US squadrons to replace the AVG in China (the AVG was already transitioning to this type from the P-40B/C), the type used by the Australians at Milne Bay, by the New Zealand squadrons during most of their air-to-air combat, and by the RAF/Commonwealth in North Africa as the Kittyhawk IA.
- P-40F and P-40L, which both featured Packard V-1650 Merlin engine in place of the normal Allison, and thus did not have the carburetor scoop on top of the nose. Performance for these models at higher altitudes was better than their Allison-engined cousins. The L in some cases also featured a fillet in front of the vertical stabilizer, or a stretched fuselage to compensate for the higher torque. The P-40L was sometimes nicknamed "Gypsy Rose Lee", after a famous stripper of the era, due to its stripped-down condition. Supplied to the Commonwealth air forces under the designation Kittyhawk Mk II, a total of 330 Mk IIs were supplied to the RAF under Lend-Lease. The first 230 aircraft are sometimes known as the Kittyhawk Mk IIA. The P-40F/L was extensively used by U.S. fighter groups operating in the Mediterranean Theater.
- P-40G: 43 P-40 aircraft fitted with the wings of the Tomahawk Mk IIA. A total of 16 aircraft were supplied to the Soviet Union, and the rest to the US Army Air Forces. It was later redesignated RP-40G.
- P-40K, an Allison-engined P-40L, with the nose-top scoop retained and the Allison-configured nose radiators scoop, cowl flaps and vertical-stabilizer-to-fuselage fillet. Supplied to the Commonwealth air forces as the Kittyhawk Mk III, it was widely used by US units in the CBI.
- P-40M, version generally similar to the P-40K, with a stretched fuselage like the P-40L and powered by an Allison V-1710-81 engine giving better performance at altitude (compared to previous Allison versions). It had some detail improvements and it was characterized by two small air scoops just before the exhaust pipes. Most of them were supplied to Allied countries (mainly UK and USSR), while some others remained in the US for advanced training. It was also supplied to the Commonwealth air forces as the Kittyhawk Mk. III.
- P-40N (manufactured 1943–44), the final production model. The P-40N featured a stretched rear fuselage to counter the torque of the more powerful, late-war Allison engine, and the rear deck of the cockpit behind the pilot was cut down at a moderate slant to improve rearward visibility. A great deal of work was also done to try and eliminate excess weight to improve the Warhawk's climb rate. Early N production blocks dropped a .50 in (12.7 mm) gun from each wing, bringing the total back to four; later production blocks reintroduced it after complaints from units in the field. Supplied to Commonwealth air forces as the Kittyhawk Mk IV. A total of 553 P-40Ns were acquired by the Royal Australian Air Force, making it the variant most commonly used by the RAAF. Subvariants of the P-40N ranged widely in specialization from stripped down four-gun "hot rods" that could reach the highest top speeds of any production variant of the P-40 (up to 380 mph), to overweight types with all the extras intended for fighter-bombing or even training missions. The 15,000th P-40 was an N model decorated with the markings of 28 nations that had employed any of Curtiss-Wright's various aircraft products, not just P-40s. "These spectacular markings gave rise to the erroneous belief that the P-40 series had been used by all 28 countries."[100] Since the P-40N was by 1944 used mainly as a ground attack aircraft in Europe, it was nicknamed B-40 by pilots.[101] Survivors redesignated as ZF-40N in June 1948.
- P-40P: The designation of 1,500 aircraft ordered with V-1650-1 engines, but actually built as the P-40N with V-1710-81 engines.
- XP-40Q: Three P-40N modified with a 4-bladed prop, cut-down rear fuselage and bubble canopy, four guns, squared-off wingtips and tail surfaces, and improved engine with two-speed supercharger. Even with these changes, its performance was not enough of an improvement to merit production when compared to the contemporary late model P-47Ds and P-51Ds pouring off production lines. The XP-40Q was, however, the fastest of the P-40 series with a top speed of 422 mph (679 km/h) as a result of the introduction of a high-altitude supercharger gear. (No P-40 model with a single-speed supercharger could even approach 400 mph (640 km/h))
- P-40R: The designation of P-40F and P-40L aircraft, converted into training aircraft in 1944.
- RP-40: Some American P-40s were converted into reconnaissance aircraft.
- TP-40: Some P-40s were converted into two-seat trainers.
- Twin P-40: A single photo exists of a P-40 mocked up with two Merlin engines, mounted atop the wings, over the main landing gear.[102]
Operators
- Royal Egyptian Air Force
- French Air Force
- Japanese Army Air Force– Captured P-40s.
- Soviet Air Force
- Soviet Naval Aviation
Surviving aircraft
On 11 May 2012, the remains of a crashed P-40 Kittyhawk (ET574) that had run out of fuel was found in the Egyptian Sahara desert.
Of the 13,738 P-40s built, only 28 remain airworthy, with three of them being converted to dual-controls/dual-seat configuration. Approximately 13 aircraft are on static display and another 36 airframes are under restoration for either display or flight.[106]
Notable P-40 pilots
- Nicky Barr: RAAF ace (11 victories); also a member of the Australia national rugby union team.
- VMF-214, the "Black Sheep Squadron".
- Clive Caldwell: RAAF, highest-scoring P-40 pilot from any air force (22 victories); highest-scoring Allied pilot in North Africa;[107] Australia's highest-scoring ace in World War II (28.5 victories).
- Levi R. Chase: USAAF; leading US P-40 ace in the Mediterranean theater, with 10 claims; CO 60th Fighter Squadron, 33rd Fighter Group; retired with the rank of Major General.
- Claire Chennault: commander, 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG; better known as the "Flying Tigers"), Chinese Air Force.
- Chikai Chou, the CO of the Chinese Air Force P-40E-equipped 23rd PS, 4th PG and ace who famously "hijacked" a USAAF P-66 at Liangshan Airbase as it was being raided by Imperial Japanese Army Air Service aircraft; he pursued the raiders shooting down two Kawasaki Ki-48 bombers, while 11 of his comrade's P-40Es were destroyed on the ground in that raid.[108]
- Daniel H. David: USAAF; later famous as the comedian and actor Dan Rowan; scored two victories and was wounded, while flying P-40s in the South West Pacific.
- Billy Drake: RAF, the leading British P-40 ace, with 13 victories.
- Neville Duke: RAF Leading Allied ace in the Mediterranean theater with 27 victories (including eight in P-40); post-war a test pilot and holder of the world air speed record.
- James Francis Edwards: RCAF, 15.75 victories (12 on the P-40); also wrote two books about British Commonwealth Kittyhawk pilots.[109][page needed]
- Geoff Fisken: RNZAF, the highest scoring British Commonwealth ace in the Pacific theater (11 victories), including five victories in Kittyhawks.
- Jack Frost: SAAF, the highest scoring air ace in a South African unit, with 15 victories (seven on the P-40); missing in action since 16 June 1942.[109]
- Herschel "Herky" Green: USAAF; 18 victory claims (including three in P-40s) while flying for the 325th Fighter Group in North Africa and Italy.
- John Gorton: RAAF; Prime Minister of Australia, 1968–1971. Gorton survived a near-fatal crash in a Hurricane IIb at Singapore in 1942; later flew Kittyhawks with No. 77 Squadron in New Guinea and became an instructor on the type.
- John F. Hampshire: USAAF; equal top-scoring US P-40 pilot (13 victory claims), all over China with the 75th FS (23rd FG), 1942–1943; killed in action.
- David Lee "Tex" Hill: AVG/USAAF, 2nd Squadron AVG and 23rd FG USAAF, 12¼ P-40 victories (18¼ total).
- Bruce K. Holloway: AVG/USAAF, equal top-scoring US P-40 pilot (13 victories); later commander of USAF Strategic Air Command and retired with the rank of General (four star).[110]
- James H. Howard: AVG/USAAF, six victories in P-40s; later, the only fighter pilot to receive the Medal of Honor for service over Europe, while flying a P-51; retired with the rank of Brigadier-General in 1966.
- OBE.
- Pyotr Pokryshev: (Pyotr Afanasyevich Pokryshev) AV-MF (Soviet Naval); twice awarded GSS; 11 victory claims (out of a total of 22) made while flying P-40s, as commander of 154th IAP.[24]
- Boris Safonov: AV-MF (Soviet Naval Aviation); Soviet quadruple (25 victory) ace and twice awarded GSS; shot down three Ju-88 bombers in one engagement while flying a P-40E, over the Baltic.[24]
- Robert Lee Scott, Jr.: USAAF, commander of the 23rd FG, China; more than 10 victories in P-40s.
- Kenneth M. Taylor: USAAF; one of only two US pilots to get airborne (in a P-40) during the attack on Pearl Harbor (7 December 1941), during which he shot down two aircraft and was wounded in the arm.
- Keith Truscott: RAAF; pre-war star of Australian football; became an ace flying Spitfires in the UK during 1941, before flying Kittyhawks over New Guinea and Australia; commanded 76 Sqn RAAF at the Battle of Milne Bay (1942); killed in an accident while flying a P-40 (1943).
- Clinton D. "Casey" Vincent: USAAF; six victory claims while flying P-40s over China.
- John Waddy: RAAF; 12½ victory claims while flying P-40s over North Africa.
- Boyd Wagner: USAAF; while flying P-40s, Wagner became the first USAAF ace of the war, during the Philippines campaign (1941–1942).
- Aboriginal Australianfighter pilot of World War II.
- George Welch: USAAF; one of only two US fighter pilots to get airborne during the first attack on Pearl Harbor, in a P-40; Welch claimed three Japanese aircraft that day.
Specifications (P-40E)
Data from Curtiss Aircraft 1907–1947,[111] America's hundred thousand : the U.S. production fighter aircraft of World War II[112]
General characteristics
- Crew: One
- Length: 31 ft 8.5 in (9.665 m)
- Wingspan: 37 ft 3.5 in (11.367 m)
- Height: 10 ft 8 in (3.25 m)
- Wing area: 236 sq ft (21.9 m2)
- Airfoil: root: NACA2215; tip :NACA2209
- Empty weight: 5,922 lb (2,686 kg)
- Gross weight: 8,515 lb (3,862 kg)
- Powerplant: 1 × piston engine, 1,240 hp (920 kW)
- Propellers: 3-bladed Curtiss-Wright electric constant-speed propeller
Performance
- Maximum speed: 361 mph (581 km/h, 314 kn) at 15,000 ft (4,600 m)[113]
- Cruise speed: 308 mph (496 km/h, 268 kn)
- Range: 716 mi (1,152 km, 622 nmi) at 70% power
- Service ceiling: 29,100 ft (8,900 m)
- Time to altitude: 15,000 ft (4,600 m) in 6 minutes 15 seconds
- Wing loading: 35.1 lb/sq ft (171 kg/m2)
- Power/mass: 0.14 hp/lb (0.23 kW/kg)
Armament
- Guns: 6 × 0.5 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine gunsin the wings
- Bombs: 250 to 1,000 lb (110 to 450 kg) bombs to a total of 2,000 lb (910 kg) on hardpoints under the fuselage and two underwing
Notable appearances in media
See also
- Historical P-40C Tomahawk, homebuilt replica
- Jurca Pee-40, homebuilt replica
- Rowley P-40F, homebuilt replica
- W.A.R. P40E, homebuilt replica
Related development
- Curtiss P-36 Hawk
- Curtiss P-37
- Curtiss XP-42
- Curtiss XP-46
- Curtiss P-60
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
- Bell P-39 Airacobra
- Dewoitine D.520
- Hawker Hurricane
- Kawasaki Ki-61
- Lavochkin-Gorbunov-Gudkov LaGG-3
- Macchi C.202
- Messerschmitt Bf 109
- Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3
- Supermarine Spitfire
- Yakovlev Yak-1
- Rogožarski IK-3
Related lists
- List of aircraft of World War II
- List of fighter aircraft
- List of military aircraft of the United States
References
Footnotes
- ^ Inspired by 112 Squadron's usage of them in North Africa, and by the Luftwaffe's earlier use of it, both via Allied wartime newspaper and magazine article images, the "shark mouth" logo on the sides of the P-40's nose was most famously used on those of the Flying Tigers in China. The Bf 110s were from II Gruppe/Zerstörergeschwader 76. Shilling, an AVG pilot indicated, "I was looking through a British magazine one day and saw a photo of a Messerschmitt Bf 110 with a shark face on it."[8]
- ^ Due to the reporter's unfamiliarity with the type, the XP-40 was inaccurately identified as an upgraded P-36.[17]
- ^ The fighter was repaired and served out the war.
- ^ Late P-40Fs and most Ks, Ls and the P-40Ms had lengthened rear fuselages; the F/Ls had no carburettor air scoop on the upper engine cowling.[29]
- ^ Kageneck's brother, August Graf von Kageneck, who corresponded with Caldwell after the war, was among those who believed that Caldwell shot down Erbo.[46]
- ^ Smith commented on the challenge of taking this photo while "scanning the surrounding sky every few seconds to make sure no Jap fighters were about to ambush us".[49]
- ^ Although part of the US 14th AF, the P-40s of 3rd and 5th FGs of the Chinese American Composite Wing were flown by both American and Chinese pilots.[48]
- ^ After being evacuated from Singapore to Australia in 1942, F/L Thomas W. Watson RCAF served for a period with No. 77 Squadron RAAF.
- ^ In total, the RNZAF claimed 106 victories in the Pacific: three by 488(NZ) Sqn in Singapore and Malaya (all confirmed), three by Lockheed Hudsons (one confirmed) and the remaining 102 by P-40 pilots. A total of 99 victories were officially confirmed, including 95 by P-40s.
Notes
- ^ Hagen, Brad. "XP-40". Curtiss P-40 Warhawk. Retrieved: 21 August 2011.
- ^ Angelucci and Matricardi 1978, p. 48.
- ^ Murphy and McNiece 2009, p. 83.
- ^ a b c Alexander 2006, p. 25.
- ^ a b Brown 1983, p. 20.
- ^ a b Crawford 1977, p. 14.
- ^ Vader 1970, p. 95.
- ^ Erik Shilling–; Off on his Last Flight. Retrieved: 28 February 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f g Masell, Patrick. "The P-40 and the Zero". Naval Aviation and Military History, 2002. Retrieved: 7 March 2006.
- ^ See Molesworth 2000,2003,2006,2008
- ^ "Chronology: The Army Air Corps to World War II". Air Force Historical Studies Office. Retrieved: 20 July 2011.
- ^ Green 1957, p. 43.
- ^ a b Merriam 2000, p. 15.
- ^ American Aviation, Volume 3, 1939, p. 2.
- ^ Wilson, Randy. "The Heart of the Cobra: Development of the Allison V-1710 Engine". Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Allison Press Release on the Certification of its V-1710 Engine by the Air Corps via The Dispatch, Volume 22, Number 1, Spring, 1997. Retrieved: 20 July 2011.
- ^ Wagner, Ray. "P-40". Archived 21 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine American Combat Planes of the 20th century. Retrieved: 20 July 2011.
- ^ "America Creeps Up". The Aeroplane (Temple Press), Volume 56, 1938, p. 730.
- ^ Molesworth 2008, p. 10.
- ^ "New Army Warplane Rides a Trailer on Its First Trip to Airport". Popular Mechanics, January 1941, p. 91.
- ^ Higam 2004, p. 3.
- ^ Gunston 1981, p. 68.
- ^ Alexander 2006, p. 22.
- ^ "ADF Aircraft Serial Numbers - RAAF A29 Curtiss P-40N Kittyhawk IV". www.adf-serials.com. 13 January 2005. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Romanenko, Valeriy and James F. Gebhardt. "The P-40 in Soviet Aviation". Archived 5 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine Lend-lease on airforce.ru. Retrieved: 7 March 2006.
- ^ a b Alexander 2006, p. 21.
- ^ Berliner 2011, p. 18.
- ^ "Aircraft of the RAF (M – T)". Archived 2 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine rafweb.org, 2007. Retrieved: 6 January 2008.
- ^ rafweb.org, 2007, "Aircraft of the RAF (E – L)". Archived 2 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine rafweb.org, 2007. Retrieved: 6 January 2008.
- ^ Green and Swanborough 1977, pp. 57–59.
- ^ Hawkins, Belinda. "The Quiet Man". Australian Story via ABC-TV, 2002. Retrieved: 8 November 2007.
- ^ a b Scutts 1994, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Pentland 1974, p. 22.
- ^ Gunston 1984, p. 226.
- ^ Ethell and Christy 1979, p. 51.
- ^ Boyne 2002, p. 406.
- ^ Snedden 1997, p. 51.
- ^ Glancey 2006, p. 166.
- ^ Pentland 1974, pp. 8, 20.
- ^ Brown 1983, p. 17.
- ^ a b Brown 1983, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Ratuszynski, Wilhelm. "Hans-Joachim Marseille: Desert Eagle". Archived 3 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine World War II Ace Stories. Retrieved: 8 March 1999.
- ^ Brown 1983, pp. 257–258.
- ^ Brown 1983, p. 259.
- ^ Alexander 2006, pp. 55–56.
- ^ a b c d e f Thomas 2002
- ^ Alexander 2006, pp. 224–228.
- ^ Dragicevic, George. "Clive 'Killer' Caldwell: Stuka Party". Archived 12 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine elknet.pl, 17 July 1999. Retrieved: 7 March 2006.
- ^ a b c d Molesworth 2000
- ^ Ford, Daniel. "R.T. Smith's photo of the AVG Tomahawks". warbirdforum.com. Retrieved: 20 July 2011.
- ISBN 9780791072172.
- ^ 02-5AD-1 V-1710-35 Operating and Flight Instructions dated 1941-10-25
- ^ Schultz, Duane. 1987. The Maverick War, Chennault and the Flying Tigers. St. Martin's Press, 335 pp.
- ^ Rossi, J.R. "History: The Flying Tigers - American Volunteer Group - Chinese Air Force". flyingtigersavg.22web.org, 1998. Retrieved: 4 August 2011.
- ^ Schultz, Duane. 1987.
- ^ Demin, Anatolii, translated by George M. Mellinger. "Changing from 'Donkeys' to 'Mustangs' Chinese Aviation In The War With Japan, 1940–1945". Planes and Pilots of World War Two, June 2000. Retrieved: 4 November 2011.
- ^ Donselaar, Remco et al. "Curtiss P-40B Warhawk, 41-13297". Archived 22 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine Touchdown Aviation, 2011. Retrieved: 4 November 2011.
- ^ a b c d Molesworth 2002
- ^ a b c Molesworth 2003
- ^ Jordan, Corey C. "The Amazing George Welch: Part One - The Tiger of Pearl Harbor". Archived 15 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine Planes and Pilots of World War Two, 2000. Retrieved: 4 August 2011.
- ^ a b Klemen, L. "Chronology of the Dutch East Indies, 7 December 1941 – 11 December 1941". Archived 15 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942, 1999–2000. Retrieved: 4 August 2011.
- ^ Klemen, L. "The United States Warship Losses in the Dutch East Indies". Archived 12 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942, 1999–2000. Retrieved: 4 August 2011.
- ^ Birkett, Gordon. "USAAF/RAAF P40E/E-1, Operations in Australia Supplementary #2". adf-serials.com, 2005. Retrieved: 1 August 2007.
- ^ "PTO/CBI Pilots of WWII". Archived 26 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine Acepilots.com, 2005. Retrieved: 7 March 2006.
- ^ "23 Fighter Group (ACC)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
- ^ Schultz, Duane. 1987. The Maverick War, Chennault and the Flying Tigers. St. Martin's Press
- ^ Moleseworth 2000, page 6
- ^ "Playing Large Part in Burma Fighting Against Japs". CBI Roundup, Vol. II, No. 32, 20 April 1944.
- ^ Higham 2004, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Weal 2003, p. 91.
- ^ USAAF General Orders; USAAF History of the 58th FG. [Sic. These need checking.]
- ^ Cathcart, Carol. "325th Fighter Group: Total Victories by Type of Aircraft". Archived 10 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Official 325th Fighter Group WWII: "Checkertail Clan" Association. Retrieved: 25 March 2006.
- ^ a b Cathcart, Carol. "History of the 317th Fighter Squadron". Archived 10 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Official 325th Fighter Group WWII "Checkertail Clan" Association. Retrieved: 5 September 2006.
- ^ "Tuskegee Airmen". Archived 14 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine National Museum of the USAF. Retrieved: 19 June 2010.
- ^ "The combat record speaks for itself". Archived 30 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine National Museum of the USAF. Retrieved: 19 June 2010.
- ^ Barr, Nicky. "Interview Transcript". ABC Australia. Retrieved: 8 November 2007.
- ISBN 978-0733638817, pp 15
- ISBN 978-0733638817, pp 371
- ^ "Australia's War 1939–1945". Archived 9 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine Official Australian Government, Department of Veterans Affairs. Retrieved: 8 January 2007.
- ^ Pentland 1974, pp. 27–39.
- ISBN 978-0733640551, pp 325
- ^ RAAF Museum, 2007, "A29 Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawk". defence.gov.au. Retrieved: 1 August 2007.
- ^ Canadian Forces, "430 Squadron – History". Archived 7 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine airforce.forces.gc. Retrieved: 3 March 2011.
- ^ a b "Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawks of the RCAF". rcaf.com, 2010. Retrieved: 3 March 2011.
- ^ Coyle 2002, pp. 214–215.
- ^ a b Rudge 2003
- ^ Horn 1992
- ^ Mossong, Peter. "The Curtiss P-40 in RNZAF Service". Royal New Zealand Air Force Pacific WWII Homepage. Retrieved: 4 September 2006.
- ^ "Curtiss P-40N Kittyhawk". Archived 7 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine New Zealand Warbirds Family Album. Retrieved: 4 September 2006.
- ^ Gordon 2008, p. 435.
- ^ Gordon 2008, pp 436–437.
- S2CID 159715267.
- ^ a b Gordon 2008, p. 437.
- ^ Drabkin 2007, p. 129.
- ^ Mellinger 2006, pp. 24–25
- ^ a b Drabkin 2007, p. 130.
- ^ Sokhorukov, Andrey, (translation) and James F. Gebhardt. "Conversations with N. G. Golodnikov Part One. I-16 and Hurricane". Archived 4 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine lend-lease.airforce.ru, 2008. Retrieved: 26 January 2009.
- ^ Gordon 2008, pp. 437–438.
- ^ "Japanese Captured P-40". J-Aircraft.com. Retrieved: 19 June 2010.
- ^ Baugher, Joseph. "P-40N Warhawk, Kittyhawk IV". p40warhawk.com, 14 November 2015. Retrieved: 17 April 2016.
- ^ McDowell 1968, p. 68.
- ^ Vader 1970, p. 137.
- ^ Donald 1997, p. 291.
- ^ "British WWII Plane". CNN News, 11 May 2012,
- ^ "RAF Museum handed over Spitfire in 'ill-conceived' deal for WWII aircraft it may never receive". The Daily Telegraph. 29 January 2015. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
- ^ Bruxelles, Simon de (3 January 2018). "Second World War RAF Kittyhawk 'ruined' by El Alamein restoration". The Times. The Times. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
- ^ McSweeny, Paul (3 June 2004). "Surviving Hawk 75, P-36 and P-40 series aircraft". Surviving Curtiss Fighters. Archived from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
- ISBN 1-74114-705-0.
- ^ Chen, C. Peter (2016). "Zhou Zhikai". WW2DB. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
Captain Zhou Zhikai (Chou Chih-kai) who had just landed in a P-40E fighter after a ground support mission, commandeered a P-66 Vanguard fighter belonging to US Army Air Forces parked nearby and shot down two Ki-48 aircraft and damaged another. Zhou was later awarded the Order of Blue Sky and White Sun for this action.
- ^ a b Shores and Ring 1969
- ^ United States Air Force Museum 1975, p. 26.
- ^ Bowers 1979 pp 474–504
- ISBN 0-7643-0072-5.
- ^ Memorandum Report On Single Engine (P-40E), A.C. 40-405, United States War Department (December 1, 1941)
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- L, Klemen (2000). "Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942". Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
- Kulikov, Victor (May 2000). "Le Curtiss P-40 sur le Front de l'Est" [The Curtiss P-40 on the Eastern Front]. Avions: Toute l'Aéronautique et son histoire (in French) (86): 2–16. ISSN 1243-8650.
- Lavigne, J. P. A. Michel and James F. Edwards. Kittyhawk Pilot. Battleford, Saskatchewan, Canada: Turner-Warwick, 1983. ISBN 0-919899-10-2.
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- Scutts, Jerry. Bf 109 Aces of North Africa and the Mediterranean. London: Osprey Publishing, 1994. ISBN 1-85532-448-2.
- Shamburger, Page and Joe Christy. The Curtiss Hawk Fighters. New York: Sports Car Press Ltd., 1971. ISBN 0-87112-041-0.
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External links
- "Ways of the War Hawk: How to Fly the Curtiss P-40 Fighter (Color, 1944)" on YouTube
- (1944) AN 01-25CN-2 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Model P-40N Series – British Model Kittyhawk IV Airplanes[dead link]
- Bu #41-13297 P-40B-CU detailed virtual view of a restoration. Pearl Harbor survivor[permanent dead link]