Cyaxares
Cyaxares | |
---|---|
King of Media | |
King of the Medes | |
Reign | 625 – 585 BCE |
Predecessor | Phraortes |
Successor | Astyages |
Died | 585 BCE |
Burial | |
Spouse | Daughter (or granddaughter) of Nabopolassar |
Issue | Astyages Amytis |
Median | ᴴuvaxšϑra |
Dynasty | Median dynasty |
Father | Phraortes |
Religion | Ancient Iranian religion |
Cyaxares (
Cyaxares collaborated with the
Name
The name Cyaxares is the Latinised form of the Greek Kuaxarēs (Κυαξαρης), which was itself the Hellenisation of the Median name ᴴuvaxšϑra (𐎢𐎺𐎧𐏁𐎫𐎼), meaning "good ruler."[5][8]
The Greek author Diodorus Siculus named Cyaxares as Astibaras (Αστιβαρας),[11] which is the Hellenisation of the Median name *R̥štibara, meaning "spear bearer."[12][13] This name is similar to the Median form of his son Astyages's name, *R̥štivaigah, meaning "spear thrower."[14][15]
Life and reign
Scythian rule
According to Herodotus, Cyaxares was the son of the Median king Phraortes. In the middle of the 7th century BCE, Phraortes led the Medes in a revolt against Assyria and was killed in battle, either against the Assyrians under their king Ashurbanipal, or against the Assyrians' Scythian allies, whose king Madyes invaded the Medes and imposed Scythian hegemony over them for almost three decades years on behalf of the Assyrians, thus starting a period which Herodotus called the "Scythian rule over Asia".[16][17]
Following the Scythian invasion, Cyaxares succeeded his father Phraortes as king of the Medes under the suzerainty of the Scythians.[18][19]
By the 620s BCE, the Assyrian Empire began unravelling after the death of Ashurbanipal: in addition to internal instability within Assyria itself, Babylon revolted against the Assyrians in 626 BCE.[20] The next year, in 625 BCE, Cyaxares overthrew the Scythian yoke over the Medes by inviting the Scythian rulers to a banquet, getting them drunk, and then murdering them all, including possibly Madyes himself.[5][20][17]
After freeing the Medes from the Scythian yoke, Cyaxares reorganised the Median armed forces in preparation for a war with Assyria: whereas the Medes previously fought as tribal militias divided into kinship groups and each warrior used whatever weapons they were the most skilled at, Cyaxares instituted a regular army modelled on the Assyrian and Urartian armies, fully equipped by the state and divided into strategic and tactical units.[21] Cyaxares might also have forced the Scythians into an alliance with the Medes after overthrowing their rule, since from 615 BCE onwards the Babylonian records mention the Scythians as the allies of the Medes.[22]
War in Parthia
At some point during his reign, Cyaxares conquered the countries of Hyrcania and Parthia, which were located to the immediate east of Media.[23]
According to Diodorus Siculus, at one point the Parthians revolted against Cyaxares and entrusted their country and their capital city to the Sacae[11] or the Dahae,[24] after which a war broke out between the Medes and the Saka, led by their queen Zarinaia, who founded multiple cities.[11] According to Diodorus, Zarinaia was the sister of the Saka king Cydraeus and initially his wife, but after his death she married the Parthian king Marmares. During the war against the Medes, Zarinaia was wounded in battle and captured by Cyaxares's son-in-law Stryngaeus, who listened to her pleas and spared her life; when Marmares later captured Stryngaeus, Zarinaia killed Marmares, and rescued Stryngaeus.[25] At the end of this war, the Parthians accepted Median rule,[11] and peace was made between the Medes and the Saka.[26]
Diodorus's account suggests that the region of Parthia was influenced by both the Medes to their west, and by the Saka nomads of the region of the Caspian and Aral Seas.[11]
War against Assyria
Following the defeat of a joint Assyrian-
Shortly after the fall of Assur, the Babylonian king Nabopolassar met Cyaxares at the ruins of the city, and they concluded an alliance against Assyria which was sealed by diplomatic marriages, with Nabopolassar's son Nebuchadnezzar II marrying Cyaxares's daughter Amytis,[28] and Cyaxares marrying a daughter or granddaughter of Nabopolassar.[5]
Once the alliance between Cyaxares and Nabopolassar had been concluded, the Median and Babylonian forces acted in concert with each other in the war against Assyria. In 612 BCE, the Median and Babylonian armies together crossed the ʿAdhaim river at its mouth and marched on the Assyrian capital city, Nineveh, which was taken and sacked by the joint Medo-Babylonian forces after three months of siege. The Assyrian king Sinsharishkun likely died during the fall of Nineveh.[29]
After the death of Sinsharishkun, an Assyrian leader who might have been his son, Ashur-uballit II, proclaimed himself the new Assyrian king in Harran, where he ruled with the support of the remnant of the Assyrian army. In 610 BCE, the pro-Assyrian Egyptian pharaoh Necho II intervened in the Levant in support of the Assyrians, and went to Harran to support Ashur-uballit. In 610 BCE, Cyaxares and Nabopolassar seized Harran from the Assyro-Egyptian force, which retreated to Carchemish on the west bank of the Euphrates.[29]
According to older interpretations of the destruction of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, its territory was partitioned between the Babylonians and the Medes, the latter of whom obtained a territory which included Assyria proper and had a southern border which started at Carchemish and passed south of Harran and along the Jabal Sinjār till the Tigris to the south of Assur, and then along the Jabāl Hamrīn and across the Diyala River valley until the northwestern borders of Elam.[30] However, according to more recent research, the Neo-Babylonian Empire obtained all of the former territories of the Assyrian Empire except for those on the Zagros mountains which the Assyrians had already lost to the Medes in earlier times, and the role of the Medes in the war against the Assyrians was largely to act as the main fighting force which handed over territory to the Babylonians and returned to Media once these military activities were completed.[31]
Conquest of Urartu
In 609 BCE, the Medes attacked the capital of the kingdom of
War against the Lydians
Following the destruction of the Assyrian Empire, the majority of the Scythians were expelled out of Western Asia and into the Pontic Steppe during the 600s BCE,[22] and the relations between the Medes and the Babylonians soon temporarily deteriorated in the 590s, but no hostilities erupted between the two.[30]
Instead, a war broke out between Media and another group of Scythians, probably members of a splinter group who had formed a kingdom in what is now Azerbaijan. These Scythians left Median-ruled Transcaucasia and fled into the kingdom of Lydia, which had been allied to the Scythians. After the Lydian king Alyattes refused to accede to Cyaxares's demands that these Scythian refugees be handed to him, a war broke out between Media and the Lydian Empire in 590 BCE.
This war lasted five years, until a solar eclipse known as the Eclipse of Thales occurred in 585 BCE, during which a battle was fought between the Lydian and Median armies. Hence, this battle became known as the Battle of the Eclipse. Both sides interpreted the eclipse as an omen to end the war. The kings of Babylon and Cilicia acted as mediators in the ensuing peace treaty, which was sealed by the marriage of Cyaxares's son Astyages with Alyattes's daughter Aryenis.
The border between Lydia and Media was fixed at a yet undetermined location in eastern Anatolia; the Graeco-Roman historians' traditional account of the Halys River as having been set as the border between the two kingdoms appears to have been a retroactive narrative construction based on symbolic role assigned by Greeks to the Halys as the separation between Lower Asia and Upper Asia as well as on the Halys being a later provincial border within the Achaemenid Empire.[33][34][35][36]
Death
Cyaxares died in the Battle of the Eclipse, in 585 BCE itself, and was succeeded by his son Astyages. The Russian historian Igor Diakonoff has tentatively suggested that the tomb of Cyaxares might be located at the place now called Qyzqapan, in the mountains of present-day Iraqi Kurdistan in Sulaymaniyah.[29]
Legacy
After
References
- ISBN 9780521200912.
- ^ Diakonoff 1985, p. 139.
- ^ according to Igor Diakonoff[2]
- ISBN 978-3-727-80876-0.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Diakonoff 1993.
- ISBN 964-8499-05-5.
- ^ Kent, Ronald Grubb (1953). Old Persian: Grammar, Text, Glossary. pp. 177.
- ^ a b Schmitt 2011, p. 216-218.
- ^ Cyaxares Archived 2014-10-22 at the Wayback Machine (Livius.org)
- ^ Cyaxares king of Media britannica.com
- ^ ISBN 978-9-004-46076-8.
- ^ Hinz 1975, p. 207.
- ^ Schmitt 2011, p. 139-140.
- ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (1987). "ASTYAGES". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 2022-07-12.
- ^ Hinz 1975, p. 208.
- JSTOR 123971. Retrieved 5 November 2021.
- ^ a b Sulimirski & Taylor 1991, p. 565.
- JSTOR 40000130. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
- ^ Dandamayev, M.; Medvedskaya, I. (2006). "MEDIA". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
- ^ a b Diakonoff 1985, p. 119.
- ^ Diakonoff 1985, p. 121-122.
- ^ a b Sulimirski & Taylor 1991, p. 567.
- ISBN 978-9-231-02846-5.
Judging by later indirect evidence, Cyaxares also succeeded in taking Parthia, Hyrcania to the east of the Caspian Sea, and Armenia.
- ^ Diakonoff 1985, p. 132.
- ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). "ZARINAIA". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 2022-07-12.
- ISBN 978-0-691-14720-8.
- ^ Diakonoff 1985, p. 122-123.
- ^ Diakonoff 1985, p. 123.
- ^ a b c d Diakonoff 1985, p. 124.
- ^ a b c d Diakonoff 1985, p. 124-125.
- ISBN 978-9-990-93968-2.
- ^ Sulimirski & Taylor 1991, p. 568.
- ^ Diakonoff 1985, p. 125-126.
- hdl:2268/207259. Retrieved 2019-04-30.
- ISBN 978-9-990-93968-2.
- ^ Leloux, Kevin (2018). La Lydie d'Alyatte et Crésus: Un royaume à la croisée des cités grecques et des monarchies orientales. Recherches sur son organisation interne et sa politique extérieure (PDF) (PhD). Vol. 2. University of Liège. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
- ^ (Struve, 1948, pp. 5-34)
Sources
- Diakonoff, I. M. (1993). "CYAXARES". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
- ISBN 978-0-521-20091-2.
- ISBN 978-3-447-01703-9.
- ISBN 978-3-700-17142-3.
- ISBN 978-1-139-05429-4.