Dakini
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A ḍākinī (
The concept of the ḍākinī somewhat differs depending on the context and the tradition. For example, in earlier Hindu texts and East Asian esoteric Buddhism, the term denotes a race of demonesses who ate the flesh and/or vital essence of humans. In Hindu Tantric literature, Ḍākinī is the name of a goddess often associated with one of the six chakras or the seven fundamental elements (dhātu) of the human body. In Nepalese and Tibetan Buddhism, meanwhile, 'ḍākinī' (also wisdom ḍākinī) can refer to both what can be best described as fierce-looking female embodiments of enlightened energy, and to human women with a certain amount of spiritual development, both of whom can help Tantric initiates in attaining enlightenment.
In
Etymology
The Sanskrit term ḍākinī is related to ḍīyate, "to fly", as in uḍḍayanam (meaning "flight"). The Tibetan khandroma (Tibetan: མཁའ་འགྲོ་མ་, Wylie: mkha' 'gro ma), meaning "sky-goer", may have originated from the Sanskrit khecara (of the same meaning), a term from the Cakrasaṃvara Tantra.[3] The masculine form of the word is ḍāka, which is usually translated into Tibetan as pawo, "hero" (Wylie: dpa' bo).[3]
In Chinese, ḍākinī is transcribed mainly as 荼枳尼 (pinyin: túzhǐní), 荼吉尼 (pinyin: tújíní), or 吒枳尼 (pinyin: zhāzhǐní); other less common alternative transcriptions include 陀祇尼 (tuóqíní), 吒祇尼 (zhāqíní), 吒幾爾 (zhājǐěr), and 拏吉尼 (nájíní).[4][5] It is also translated as 空行母 (pinyin: kōngxíngmǔ; lit. 'sky-going mother'), a calque of the Tibetan term. In Japanese, these transcriptions are all read as dakini (katakana: ダキニ; also ダーキニー, dākinī).[4][5]
In Hinduism
As demonesses
In certain passages in
In the Bhāgavata Purāṇa (10.06.27–29), after the young Krishna had killed the demoness Pūtanā, the cowherd women (gopis) of Vrindavan carry out protective rites to keep him safe from future harm. At the end of the ritual, they declare:
The Dākinīs, the Yātudhānīs, the Kūṣmāṇḍas, the infanticides, the goblins [Bhūtas], the
Mātṛs, the Piśācas, the Yakṣas, the Rakṣasas, the Vināyakas, Kotarī, Revatī, Jyeṣṭhā, Pūtanā, and other Mātṛkās, Unmāda, Apasmāra, and other devils inimical to the mind, the body and the senses, and other evil omens and calamities dreamt of, and the slayers of the old and the young,—may these and all other evil spirits be destroyed, being terrified at the recital of the name of Viṣṇu.[a]
As a goddess
Other texts meanwhile apparently use 'Ḍākinī' as the name of a goddess. In the Lalitopākhyāna ("Narrative of [the goddess] Lalitā") section of the Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa, Ḍākinī is one of the deities who guards the chariot of the boar-faced goddess Daṇḍanāthā, one of Lalitā's generals.[10]
Seven deities called Dhātunāthās were stationed in their respective places beneath the same step. They were Yakṣiṇī, Śaṅkhinī, Lākinī, Hākinī, Śākinī, Ḍākinī and (another) Hākinī who had the united (and combined) forms of all of them. All these demonstrated the exploits of their mighty arms. They appeared ready to drink (i.e. destroy) all living beings and the Earth. They drank and consumed the seven Dhātus, essential ingredients, of the body (viz. the blood), skin, flesh, fat, bones, marrow and the semen of enemies. They had hideous faces. With their harsh leonine roars they filled ten-quarters. They were called Dhātunāthās and they were the bestowers of eight Siddhis beginning with Aṇimā (minuteness).
They were experts in deluding, slaying, paralysing (stupefying), striking, swallowing, and exterminating the wicked Daityas. In regard to those who are habitually devout, they were competent to annihilate all adversities. They were called Dhātunāthās (since) they were present in all Dhātus (essential secretions of the body).[10]
A chapter detailing the mode of worship of the goddess Kubjikā contained in the Agni Purāṇa instructs that the goddesses "Ḍākinī, Rākinī, Kākinī, Śākinī, and Yakṣiṇī should be worshipped in the six directions (coming) from the north-west."[11]
In Tantric literature, Ḍākinī the goddess is usually associated with the saptadhātus (the seven primary constituent elements of the human body) or the six chakras. The Kubjikāmata Tantra for instance enumerates seven yoginī goddesses (Kusumamālinī, Yakṣiṇī, Śaṅkhinī, Kākinī, Lākinī, Rākinī, and Ḍākinī) to whom the ritual practitioner symbolically offers his semen, bones, marrow, fat, flesh, blood and skin, respectively. A nearly identical listing of goddesses can be found in a later text belonging to the same tradition, the Śrīmatottara Tantra: here, the names listed are Dākinī, Rākinī, Lākinī, Kākinī, Śākinī, Hākinī, Yākinī and Kusumā.[12] Another chapter in the Kubjikāmata Tantra lists two sequences of six goddesses, assigned to each of the six chakras: the first denotes the creative "northern course" of the six chakras, from the ājñā down to the ādhāra, while the latter – comprising Ḍākinī, Rākinī, Lākinī, Kākinī, Śākinī and Hākinī – denotes the destructive "southern course", in reverse order.[12]
Later Tantric texts such as the Rudrayāmala Tantra identify Ḍākinī, Rākinī, Lākinī, Kākinī, Śākinī and Hākinī with the six chakras, the dhātus and the five elements plus the mind.[12][13] This work associates Ḍākinī with the mūlādhāra chakra, Rākinī with svādhiṣṭhāna, Lākinī with maṇipūra, Kākinī with anāhata, Śākinī with viśuddhi, and Hākinī with ājñā. The Śrīmatottara Tantra places Kusumamāla (absent in the Rudrayāmala Tantra) at the feet, while other texts place a figure named Yākinī at the level of the sahasrāra.[12]
In Buddhism
As flesh-eaters
In a chapter criticizing meat-eating in the
In
[The ḍākinīs'] chief was the yakṣa Maheśvara, who worldly people say is the ultimate [god]. They were subject to Mahākāla, the god called the "Great Black One" (大黑). Vairocana, employing the method of Trailokyavijaya and wanting to exterminate them, transformed himself into Mahākāla, exceeding him in an immeasurable manifestation. His body smeared with ashes in a desolate place, he summoned with his magical art all the ḍākinīs, who had all of the magical powers [such as] flying, walking on water and being completely unhindered. He upbraided them, saying: "Since you alone always devour people, now I will eat you!" Then he swallowed them, but did not allow them to die. Once they have submitted, he released them, completely forbidding them to [eat] flesh. They spoke to the Buddha, saying, "We presently eat flesh to survive. How can we sustain ourselves now?" The Buddha said, "I will permit you to eat the hearts of dead people." They said, "When a man is about to die, the māhāyakṣas and so forth know that his life is exhausted, and they race there to eat him, so how can we get [our share]?" The Buddha said, "I will teach you the mantra procedures and mudrās. You will be able to know six months before someone dies, and knowing this, you should protect him with this method, so he will not fear being injured. When his life has expired, then you can seize and eat [his heart]." In this way, they were gradually induced to embark upon the [Buddhist] path.[18][19]
Other texts meanwhile assign the taming of the ḍākinīs to other figures such as Vajrapāṇi or the Wisdom King Acala (Fudō Myōō in Japanese).[15] Indeed, in Japanese esoteric Buddhism Acala is believed to have the power to extend the lifespan of his devotees and was thus invoked in certain life-prolonging rituals against soul-stealing demons such as ḍākinīs.[20] Like Mahākāla, Acala is interpreted in the Japanese tradition as a wrathful avatar of Vairocana, with some texts even identifying Mahākāla as Acala's "trace" (suijaku) or manifestation.[20][21]
A dictionary compiled by the Tang dynasty monk Huilin (慧琳) titled
In Japanese Buddhism
Emergence and development of cult
The ḍākinī imagery arrived in Japan via
The ḍākinīs were, as per their placement in the Womb Realm Mandala, originally revered as part of Yama's (Enmaten's) retinue, mainly figuring in rituals centered around the deity. A ḍākinī (not yet the medieval Dakiniten), depicted as a long-haired woman holding a bag, also appears in the Enmaten mandalas of the late Heian period as one of the god's attendants.[22] It was after the Insei period of the late 11th to mid-12th century, during which Japan was effectively under the rule of retired ("cloistered") emperors, that a cult centered around the deified ḍākinī as a single goddess named 'Dakiniten' emerged independent of the Enmaten ritual.[22] As the cult of Dakiniten flourished, its rite became famous for being particularly effective for obtaining worldly benefits and was thus especially attractive to the politically ambitious; at the same time, however, the ritual was viewed with suspicion within some circles as a dangerous, "heterodox" (外法, gehō) practice due to its supposed subversive, black magical aspects.[26]
It is difficult to trace the exact origins of the Japanese Dakiniten cult. While a number of medieval texts claim the ritual's lineage started with eminent esoteric masters such as Amoghavajra or Vajrabodhi, the lineage may more plausibly be traced back to 10th century Shingon monks such as the Jingo-ji priest Kengyō (鑒教) or the Tō-ji abbot Kanshuku (観宿, fl. 926–930).[27] Although one legend claims that Saichō, the founder of the Tendai school, brought with him Dakiniten ritual texts from China which he then buried at Mount Hiei,[28][29] there is actually no historical proof that he or any of the other monks who went to China to study esoteric Buddhism – Kūkai, Jōgyō, Engyō, Ennin, Eun, Enchin and Shuei – brought home any such texts with them, suggesting that the Dakiniten rite developed in Japan well after their time.[29]
The rapid rise of certain notable figures to prominence, as well as their decline, have been popularly attributed to Dakiniten. A certain anecdote regarding the military leader
According to the Kamakura period work Kokon Chomonjū, the late Heian period nobleman Fujiwara no Tadazane commissioned the performance of the Dakiniten rite for seven days as he was about to be sent into exile. At the end of that period, a fox came to eat his offering, a rice cake. He then later had a dream in which he was visited by a beautiful young woman. When she was getting ready to leave, he grasped her hair to hold her back, at which he woke up finding himself holding a fox's tail in his hands. The next day, instead of being exiled, he was promoted to a high rank. Attributing this turn of events to Dakiniten, Tadazane in thanksgiving worshiped the fox tail as a symbol of the deity.[26][32]
Other people claimed to have attained positions of authority due to their devotion to Dakiniten include the monk
Dakiniten and Inari
Dakiniten's cult flourished mainly via the network of
The assimilation of Dakiniten and Inari (or rather, Ukanomitama) can also be observed in the origin story of the Dakiniten Hall at
In popular religion, Dakiniten was also identified with a fox goddess worshiped at Mount Inari known variously as Akomachi (阿小町), Tōme (専女), or Myōbu (命婦). This deity (commonly regarded as an attendant of the god of Inari[40]) was revered as a patron of love and matchmaking; a short liturgical text to Akomachi preserved at Kōzan-ji is titled Dakini no saimon (荼枳尼祭文).[35] In its section on the Inari deity, the Nanboku-chō period anthology Shintōshū recounts a tradition found in "a certain person's diary" which identifies the deity of the Upper Shrine (上社, kami no yashiro) of Inari[b] as the "Dragon / Astral Fox" (辰狐, Shinko) Myōbu, who is said to be a manifestation of the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī. The work then further identifies this Shinko(ō) Bosatsu (辰狐(王)菩薩, "Dragon / Astral Fox (King) Bodhisattva", i.e. Dakiniten) as the incarnation of Vairocana, Mañjuśrī, Vaiśravaṇa and Cintāmaṇicakra (Nyoirin Kannon).[42][43]
Another notable 'Inari' sanctuary is the
Imperial enthronement ceremony
From the Middle Ages up until the
The origins of sokui kanjō are shrouded in mystery; one tradition claims that a disciple of Ningai, Seison (成尊, 1012–1074[52]), first conducted it during the accession of Emperor Go-Sanjō in 1068. Performance of the rite, however, eventually became the prerogative of Fujiwara regents, who transmitted the mantras to the new emperor during the ceremony. Indeed, a medieval legend justifies this custom by claiming that it started with the founding ancestor of the Fujiwara clan, Nakatomi (Fujiwara) no Kamatari, who was abducted in his youth by a she-fox (an avatar of Amaterasu). The fox taught Kamatari the enthronement rites and gave him a sickle (kama) with which he defeated his enemy Soga no Iruka.[53] One text even identifies Kamatari and Daten (Dakiniten) as manifestations of Amaterasu.[54]
The connection between the fox, Dakiniten, and Amaterasu can also be seen in the Keiran Shūyōshū, which features the following retelling of the myth of Amaterasu's hiding:
Question: What was the appearance of Amaterasu when she was hiding in the Rock-Cave of Heaven?
Answer: Since Amaterasu is the sun deity, she had the appearance of the sun-disc. Another tradition says: When Amaterasu retired into the Rock-Cave of Heaven after her descent from Heaven (sic), she took on the appearance of a dragon-fox (shinko). Uniquely among all animals, the dragon-fox is a kami that emits light from its body; this is the reason why she took on this appearance.
Question: Why does the dragon-fox emit light?
Answer: The dragon-fox is an expedient body of Nyoirin Kannon. It takes the wish-fulfilling gem as its body, and is therefore called King Cintāmaṇi. ... Further, one tradition says that one becomes a king by revering the dragon-fox because the dragon-fox is an expedient body of Amaterasu.[55]
Commenting on the sokui kanjō, Bernard Faure writes:[56]
under the name "Fox King," Dakiniten became a manifestation of the sun goddess Amaterasu, with whom the new emperor united during the enthronement ritual. [...] The Buddhist ritual allowed the ruler to symbolically cross over the limits separating the human and animal realms to harness the wild and properly superhuman energy of the "infrahuman" world, so as to gain full control of the human sphere.
Another type of secret enthronement ritual centered on Dakiniten took place on the Outer Shrine of Ise (Gekū) and was performed every morning and evening by the shrine's young female attendants or kora (子良 or 狐良 – 狐 being the character for 'fox') when they presented their daily offerings to the deity. There are two traditions related to its origins, one claiming that it goes back to Amaterasu herself through her priestess Yamatohime, the other that it originated with Kūkai. In this way, the kora, and through them Amaterasu, came to be identified with Dakiniten. According to the Bikisho: "Based on this [ancient practice of worshiping animals with special powers] at these [Ise] shrines, the shrine maidens (kora) perform the Ritual of the Astral Fox after presenting divine food. Its meaning is to show that the promise made in ancient times has not been forgotten. Therefore, the emperors, who are the descendants of the great deity [of Ise], are initiated in this method as part of their enthronement."[56]
Connection with foxes
Although Dakini-ten was said to be a powerful Buddhist deity, the images and stories surrounding it in Japan in both medieval and modern times are drawn from local kitsune mythology. The modern folk belief, often printed in Japanese books about religion, is that the fox image was a substitute for the Indian jackal, but the black jackal and other black animals are associated with Kali.
In the
Mantra
The Mahāvairocana Tantra assigns the following mantra to the ḍākinīs:
Sanskrit | Chinese characters |
---|---|
Namaḥ samanta-buddhānāṃ hrīḥ haḥ[58] | 南麼 三曼多 勃馱喃(一) 訶(去)唎(二合)訶(上)[59] |
The following mantra meanwhile is associated with Toyokawa Inari and is said to have been revealed by Dakiniten to Kangan Giin:
Chinese characters | Japanese (romanized) |
---|---|
唵尸羅婆陀尼黎吽娑婆訶[60] |
This mantra is traditionally interpreted as meaning: "When this spell is chanted, the faith in me reaches everywhere, and by the true power of the Buddhist precepts, evil and misfortune will be abolished and luck and wisdom attained; suffering removed and comfort achieved, and pain transformed into delight."[44]
In Tibetan Buddhism
Although ḍākinī figures appear in
The ḍākinī appears in a Vajrayana formulation of the
.The dakini, in her various guises, serves as each of the Three Roots. She may be a human guru, a vajra master who transmits the Vajrayana teachings to her disciples and joins them in samaya commitments. The wisdom dakini may be a yidam, a meditational deity; female deity yogas such as Vajrayogini are common in Tibetan Buddhism. Or she may be a protector; the wisdom dakinis have special power and responsibility to protect the integrity of oral transmissions."[61]
An archetypal ḍākinī in Tibetan Buddhism is Yeshe Tsogyal, consort of Padmasambhava.[3]
Classes
- The secret class of ḍākinī is prajnaparamita (Tibetan yum chenmo), the empty nature of reality according to Mahayana doctrine.
- The inner class of ḍākinī is the ḍākinī of the mandala, a meditational deity (Tibetan:yidam) and fully enlightened Buddha who helps the practitioner recognise their own Buddhahood.
- The outer ḍākinī is the physical form of the ḍākinī, attained through Six Yogas of Naropa that work with the subtle winds of the subtle bodyso that the practitioner's body is compatible with an enlightened mind.
- The outer-outer ḍākinī is a ḍākinī in human form. She is a yogini in her own right but may also be a karmamudrā, or consort, of a yogi or mahasiddha.
Dakinis can also be classified according to the Trikaya, or three bodies of buddhahood.
- The Samantabhadrī, represents the dharmadhatuwhere all phenomena appear.
- The Sambhogakāya ḍākinīs are the yidamsused as meditational deities for tantric practice.
- The Five Buddha Families.[63]
Daka
In some instances, the terms ḍāka and ḍākinī have been used for practitioners of tantric yoga themselves. In other instances, just ḍākinī was used for female practitioners, while male practitioners were just known as yogi. Padmasambhava was known as a yogi and Yeshe Tsogyal, a Tibetan princess, yogini and consort of Padmasambhava, as a ḍākinī.
The scholar Miranda Shaw stated that "In Sanskrit there is only one word, Dakini. There are only female Dakinis... there is no male Dakini. It is an impossibility and a contradiction in terms."[64] On the other hand, Pratapaditya Pal stated, "both dakas and dakinis occur frequently in Tibetan literature, though the latter predominate."[65]
Whereas Jan Willis in the chapter Ḑākinī; Some Comments on Its Nature and Meaning points out that "'she' is not 'female'. Though the ḍākinī assuredly most often appears in female form... this is but one of the myriad of ways Absolute Insight chooses to make manifest its facticity."[66][verify]
Tibetan Lamas trained in the Gelug school, such as Sermey Khensur Lobsang Tharchin,[67] and those of the Karma Kagyu school such as Khenpo Karthar Rinpoche,[68] write freely of "dakas and dakinis". Thubten Yeshe clarifies their meaning: "what are dakas and dakinis? Simply speaking they are males and females who possess advanced experiences of tantric transformation and control and are therefore able to increase the blissful wisdom of a highly qualified practitioner."[69]
In Anuttarayoga Tantra
Being associated with energy in all its functions, ḍākinīs are linked with the revelation of the
When the
heart center and experiencing the profoundest level of clear light.[69]
In Dzogchen
When considered as a stage on the Vajrayana Path, the ḍākinī is the final stages: the first is the guru, which corresponds to the initial realization of the true condition of reality, as this is introduced by the guru in the
In Dzogchen these three correspond to tawa (lta ba), gompa (sgom pa) and chöpa (spyod pa): the first is the direct vision of the true nature of reality rather than an intellectual view of reality, as is the case with the term in other vehicles; the second is the continuity of this vision in sessions of meditation; and the third is the continuity of this vision in everyday activities. As a tantric practice, imperfections are used to make the vision uninterrupted. As the Base, the ḍākinīs are the energies of life; as the Path, they are the activities of advanced practitioners; as the Fruit, they are the actionless activities of realized Masters.[63]
See also
- Apsara – Type of female spirit of the clouds and waters in Hindu and Buddhist culture
- Daayan – Type of witch in Indian culture
- Simhamukha – Tibetan Buddhist wisdom dakini (deity)
- Toyokawa Inari – Buddhist temple in Toyokawa, Aichi, Japan
References
Notes
- ^ Translation based on Dutt 1895, p. 30. The transliteration of Sanskrit names have been changed to the currently widely used standard.
- ^ The goddess Ōmiyanome (claimed in the Kogo Shūi to be a daughter of the god Futodama) is currently considered to be the deity of the Upper Inari Shrine located on Mount Inari's peak Ichinomine (一ノ峰),[41] although the actual shrine on the summit simply dubs the deity 'Suehiro Ōkami' (末広大神).
Citations
- ^ "University of Michigan, Dakini / Artist Unknown, Nepal". University of Michigan Library Digital Collections. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
- ^ "Dakinis: Goddesses of Liberation in Buddhism". Learn Religions. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
- ^ a b c Buswell & Lopez (2013), p. [page needed].
- ^ a b c "荼枳尼天". Flying Deity Tobifudo (Ryūkō-zan Shōbō-in). Archived from the original on 8 May 2017. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
- ^ a b "荼枳尼天 (Dakiniten)". コトバンク (kotobank) (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 19 November 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
- ^ Monier-Williams (1899).
- ^ Coulter & Turner (2013), p. 586.
- ^ Shastry (1970), p. [page needed].
- ^ Tagare (1958a), p. [page needed].
- ^ a b Tagare (1958b), p. [page needed].
- ^ Gangadharan (1954), pp. 413–416.
- ^ a b c d White (2003), pp. 221–229.
- ^ Timalsina (2016), p. 475.
- ^ Suzuki (1932), p. [page needed].
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 381.
- ^ Faure (2015a), p. 195.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 117–118.
- ^ a b Gray (2005), pp. 47–49.
- ^ Yī Xíng (一行). "大毘盧遮那成佛經疏 卷第十 (Commentary on the Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra, fascicle 10) – T. 848". SAT Daizokyo Text Database. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
- ^ a b Faure (2015a), p. 136.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 55–56.
- ^ a b c Faure (2015b), p. 119.
- ^ Huìlín (慧琳). "一切經音義 卷十 (Yīqièjīng yīnyì, vol. 10) – T. 2128". SAT Daizokyo Text Database. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
荼抧尼 鷄以反。梵語女鬼之總名、能魅人與人通者也。
- ^ a b Boscaro (2003).
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 118–119.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 121.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 122.
- ^ "「清高稲荷神社」について". Sightsinfo Project. Retrieved 8 July 2021.
- ^ a b Haneda (2020), p. 70.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 121, 224–225.
- ^ Bathgate (2004), p. 154.
- ^ a b Smyers (1999), p. 84.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 121–122.
- ^ "光宗 (Kōshū)". コトバンク (Kotobank) (in Japanese). Retrieved 7 July 2021.
- ^ a b c Faure (2015b), p. 123.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 134.
- ^ Hayakawa, et al. (2008), pp. 116–117.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 123, 134.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 138.
- ^ "白狐社|稲荷大神のお使いである白狐を祀る伏見稲荷大社の末社". ふしみいなりガイド (in Japanese). 9 March 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
- ^ "Main Shrine Building (Honden)". Fushimi Inari Taisha Official Website. Retrieved 30 April 2022.
- ^ Aruga (2014), p. 221.
- ^ "伏見稲荷大社". 本地垂迹資料便覧. Retrieved 30 April 2022.
- ^ a b "Guide to Toyokawa Inari" (PDF). Toyokawa Inari Official Website. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 136.
- ^ "最上さまのこと". Shima-no-Bo Official Website (in Japanese). Retrieved 30 April 2022.
- ^ "最上稲荷について". Saijō Inari Official Website (in Japanese). 8 October 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2022.
- ^ Kamikawa Michio (1990), pp. 257–263, 269.
- ^ Breen & Teeuwen (2013), pp. 113–117.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 125.
- ^ Faure (2015b), p. 132.
- ^ "成尊 (Seison)". コトバンク (Kotobank). Retrieved 30 April 2022.
- ^ Faure (2015b), pp. 124–125.
- ^ Kamikawa Michio (1990), p. 258.
- ^ Breen & Teeuwen (2013), p. 114.
- ^ a b Faure (2015b), p. 127.
- ^ Blacker (1999).
- ^ BDK (2005), p. 68, 117.
- ^ Śubhakarasiṃha, Yī Xíng (一行). "大毘盧遮那成佛神變加持經 卷第二 (Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sutra, fascicle 2) – T. 848". SAT Daizokyo Text Database. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
- ^ "当山の歴史". Toyokawa Inari Official Website. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
- ^ Simmer-Brown (2002), pp. 139–140.
- ^ Simmer-Brown (2002), pp. 69–79.
- ^ a b Capriles (2007).
- ^ Powers (n.d.).
- ^ Pal (1983).
- ^ Willis (1995), pp. 57–96.
- ^ Tharchin (1997).
- ^ Karthar Rinpoche (2006).
- ^ a b Yeshe (2001), p. 135.
Works cited
- Aruga, Natsuki (2014). "『神道集』巻三「稲荷大明神事」における表現をめぐって : ダキニ天信仰の受容を中心に (Textual representation in the Shinto-shu text "Inari-daimyojin-no-koto": On the Acceptance of the Dakini Faith)" (PDF). 人文 (Jinbun). 13. Gakushuin University Research Institute for Humanities: 222–210.
- Bathgate, Michael (2004). The Fox's Craft in Japanese Religion and Culture: Shapeshifters, Transformations, and Duplicities. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-88391-1.
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Further reading
- Campbell, June (1996). Traveller in Space: In Search of the Female Identity in Tibetan Buddhism. George Braziller. ISBN 978-0-8076-1406-8.
- English, Elizabeth (2002). Vajrayogini: Her Visualizations, Rituals, and Forms. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0-86171-329-5.
- Haas, Michaela (2013). Dakini Power: Twelve Extraordinary Women Shaping the Transmission of Tibetan Buddhism in the West. Snow Lion. ISBN 978-1559394079.
- Norbu, Thinley (1981). Magic Dance: The Display of the Self Nature of the Five Wisdom Dakinis (2nd ed.). Jewel Publishing House. ISBN 978-0-9607000-0-4.
- ISBN 978-962-7341-36-9.