Damascus steel
Damascus steel is the forged
Wootz (Indian), Pulad (Persian), Fuladh (Arabic), Bulat (Russian) and Bintie (Chinese) are all names for historical ultra-high carbon crucible steel typified by carbide segregation. "Wootz" is an erroneous transliteration of "utsa" or "fountain" in Sanskrit; however, since 1794, it has been the primary word used to refer to historical hypereutectoid crucible steel.[4] The term "Damascus steel" itself likely traces its roots to the medieval city of Damascus, Syria.
History
Origins
The origin of the name "Damascus Steel" is contentious: the Islamic scholars al-Kindi (full name Abu Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, circa 800 CE – 873 CE) and al-Biruni (full name Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, circa 973 CE – 1048 CE) both wrote about swords and steel made for swords, based on their surface appearance, geographical location of production or forging, or the name of the smith, and each mentions "damascene" or "damascus" swords to some extent.
Drawing from al-Kindi and al-Biruni, there are three potential sources for the term "Damascus" in the context of steel:
- Al-Kindi called swords produced and forged in Damascus as Damascene[5] but it is worth noting that these swords were not described as having a pattern in the steel.
- Al-Biruni mentions a sword-smith called Damasqui who made swords of crucible steel.[6]
The most common explanation is that steel is named after Damascus, the capital city of Syria and one of the largest cities in the ancient Levant. It may either refer to swords made or sold in Damascus directly, or it may just refer to the aspect of the typical patterns, by comparison with Damask fabrics (also named for Damascus),[7][8] or it may indeed stem from the root word of "damas".
Identification of crucible "Damascus" steel based on metallurgical structures [9] is difficult, as crucible steel cannot be reliably distinguished from other types of steel by just one criterion, so the following distinguishing characteristics of crucible steel must be taken into consideration:
- The crucible steel was liquid, leading to a relatively homogeneous steel content with virtually no slag
- The formation of dendrites is a typical characteristic
- The segregation of elements into dendritic and interdendritic regions throughout the sample
By these definitions, modern recreations[10] of crucible steel are consistent with historic examples.
Bin iron: It is produced by the Western Barbarians. Some [types] have a spiral self-patterning, while others have a sesame-seed or snowflake patterning. When a knife or sword is wiped clean and treated with 'gold thread' alum, [the pattern] appears. Its value is greater than silver.[11]
— Cao Zhao
The reputation and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, such as the ability to cut through a rifle barrel or to cut a hair falling across the blade, though the accuracy of these legends is not reflected by the extant examples of patterned crucible steel swords which are often
Damascus blades were first manufactured in the
Bin iron, which is produced by the Western Barbarians [Xi Fan 西番], is especially fine. The Bao zang lun states: 'There are five kinds of iron ... [The first two come from Hubei and Jiangxi.] Bin iron is produced in Persia [Bosi 波斯]; it is so hard and sharp that it can cut gold and jade ... [The last two kinds come from Shanxi and the Southwest.][25]
Loss of the technique
Many claim that modern attempts to duplicate the metal have not been entirely successful due to differences in raw materials and manufacturing techniques. However, several individuals in modern times have successfully produced pattern forming hypereutectoid crucible steel with visible carbide banding on the surface, consistent with original Damascus Steel.[10][26][27]
Production of these patterned swords gradually declined, ceasing by around 1900, with the last account being from 1903 in Sri Lanka documented by Coomaraswamy.[9] Some gunsmiths during the 18th and 19th century used the term "damascus steel" to describe their pattern-welded gun barrels, but they did not use crucible steel. Several modern theories have ventured to explain this decline, including the breakdown of trade routes to supply the needed metals, the lack of trace impurities in the metals, the possible loss of knowledge on the crafting techniques through secrecy and lack of transmission, suppression of the industry in India by the British Raj,[28] or a combination of all the above.[10][26][29]
In addition to being made into blades in India (particularly Golconda) and Sri Lanka,
The discovery of carbon nanotubes in the Damascus steel's composition supports the hypothesis that wootz production was halted due to a loss of ore sources or technical knowledge, since the precipitation of carbon nanotubes probably resulted from a specific process that may be difficult to replicate should the production technique or raw materials used be significantly altered.[29] The claim that carbon nanowires were found has not been confirmed by further studies, and there is contention among academics including John Verhoeven about whether the nanowires observed are actually stretched rafts or rods formed out of cementite spheroids.[16]
Reproduction
Recreating Damascus steel has been attempted by archaeologists using experimental archaeology. Many have attempted to discover or reverse-engineer the process by which it was made.
Moran: billet welding
Since the well-known technique of pattern welding—the forge-welding of a blade from several differing pieces—produced surface patterns similar to those found on Damascus blades, some modern blacksmiths were erroneously led to believe that the original Damascus blades were made using this technique. However today, the difference between wootz steel and pattern welding is fully documented and well understood.[32][33][34] Pattern-welded steel has been referred to as "Damascus steel" since 1973 when Bladesmith William F. Moran unveiled his "Damascus knives" at the Knifemakers' Guild Show.[35][36]
This "Modern Damascus" is made from several types of steel and iron slices
Verhoeven and Pendray: crucible
J. D. Verhoeven and A. H. Pendray published an article on their attempts
Although such material could be worked at low temperatures to produce the striated Damascene pattern of intermixed ferrite/pearlite and cementite spheroid bands in a manner identical to pattern-welded Damascus steel, any heat treatment sufficient to dissolve the carbides was thought to permanently destroy the pattern. However, Verhoeven and Pendray discovered that in samples of true Damascus steel, the Damascene pattern could be recovered by thermally cycling and thermally manipulating the steel at a moderate temperature.[40] They found that certain carbide forming elements, one of which was vanadium, did not disperse until the steel reached higher temperatures than those needed to dissolve the carbides. Therefore, a high heat treatment could remove the visual evidence of patterning associated with carbides but did not remove the underlying patterning of the carbide forming elements; a subsequent lower-temperature heat treatment, at a temperature at which the carbides were again stable, could recover the structure by the binding of carbon by those elements and causing the segregation of cementite spheroids to those locations. Thermal cycling after forging allows for the aggregation of carbon onto these carbide formers, as carbon migrates much more rapidly than the carbide formers. Progressive thermal cycling leads to the coarsening of the cementite spheroids via Ostwald ripening.
Anosov, Wadsworth and Sherby: bulat
In Russia, chronicles record the use of a material known as bulat steel to make highly valued weapons, including swords, knives, and axes. Tsar Michael of Russia reportedly had a bulat helmet made for him in 1621. The exact origin or the manufacturing process of the bulat is unknown, but it was likely imported to Russia via Persia and Turkestan, and it was similar and possibly the same as Damascus steel. Pavel Petrovich Anosov successfully reproduced the process in the mid-19th century. Wadsworth and Sherby also researched [26] the reproduction of bulat steel and published their results in 1980.
Additional research
A team of researchers based at the
Sanderson proposes that the process of forging and
German researchers have investigated the possibility of manufacturing high-strength Damascus steel through laser additive manufacturing techniques as opposed to the traditional folding and forging.[43] The resulting samples exhibited superior mechanical properties to ancient Damascus steels, with a tensile strength of 1300 MPa and 10% elongation.
In gunmaking
Prior to the early 20th century, all shotgun barrels were forged by heating narrow strips of iron and steel and shaping them around a
Material and mechanical properties
Damascus steel can be considered a type of
The mechanical properties of Damascus steel arise from the composite layered structure of differing materials. The material attempts to combine the hardness of high carbon steels with the ductility of low carbon steels, optimizing the desirable properties from both components.[47]
Verhoeven, Peterson, and Baker completed mechanical characterization of a Damascus sword, performing
Another study investigated the properties of Damascus steel produced from 1075 steel and 15N20 steel, which have approximately equal amounts of carbon, but the 15N20 steel notably has 2 wt% nickel.[51] The 1075 steel is known for high strength, but low toughness, with a pearlitic microstructure, and the 15N20 steel is known for high toughness with a ferritic microstructure. The mechanical properties of the resultant laminate Damascus steel were characterized, in samples with 54 folds in production as well as samples with 250 folds. Charpy V-notch impact tests showed that the 54-fold samples had an impact toughness of 4.36 J/cm2, while the 250-fold samples had an impact toughness of 5.49 J/cm2. Tensile testing showed that yield strengths and elongations for both samples were similar, at around 475 MPa and 3.2% respectively. However, the maximum strength of the 54-fold samples was notably lower than that of the 250-fold samples (750 MPa vs. 860 MPa). This study showed that the folding process has a significant impact on the mechanical properties of the steel, with increasing toughness as fold numbers increase.[51] This effect is likely due to the thinning and refinement of the microstructure, and to achieve optimal properties, the steel should be folded a few hundred times.
Further studies of Damascus steel created other steels showed similar results, confirming that increasing folds results in greater impact strength and toughness, and extending this finding to be consistent at higher temperatures.[52] They also compare mechanical properties of the Damascus to the original materials, finding that the properties of the Damascus steel lie in between those of the two constituent steels, which is consistent with composite material properties.
The processing and design of the laminations and bands can have a significant effect on mechanical properties as well. Regardless of tempering temperature and the liquid the steel is quenched in, the impact strength of Damascus steel where the impact is perpendicular to the band orientation is significantly higher than the impact strength where the impact is parallel to the band orientation.[53] This is due to the failure and fracture mechanisms in Damascus steel, where cracks propagate fastest along the interfaces between the two constituent steels. When impact is directed parallel to the bands, cracks are able to propagate easily along the lamination interfaces. When impact is directed perpendicular to the bands, the lamination interfaces are effectively protected, deflecting the cracks and increasing the energy required for cracks to propagate through the material. These results provide insight into optimal Damascus steel design depending on application: band orientation should be chosen to protect against deformation and increase toughness.
Cultural references and misconceptions
The blade that Beowulf used to kill Grendel's mother in the story Beowulf was described in some Modern English translations as "damascened".[54][55]
The exceptionally strong fictional Valyrian steel mentioned in George R. R. Martin's book series A Song of Ice and Fire, as well as its television adaptation Game of Thrones, appears to have been inspired by Damascus steel, but with a magic twist.[56] Just like Damascus/Wootz steel, Valyrian steel also seems to be a lost art from an ancient civilization. Unlike Damascus steel, however, Valyrian steel blades require no maintenance and cannot be damaged through normal combat.
A common misconception is that the steel was hardened by thrusting it six times in the back and thighs of a slave. This originated in an article on page 28 of the Chicago Tribune of November 4, 1894 titled Tempering Damascus Blades. The note asserts that a certain "Prof. von Eulenspiegel" found a scroll "among the ruins of ancient Tyre". "Eulenspiegel" is the name of the legendary prankster of medieval Germany.[57]
See also
- Toledo steel
- Wootz steel
- Noric steel
- Bulat steel
- Tamahagane steel
- Mokume-gane
- Laminated steel blade
- Tungsten carbide
References
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- "Secret's out for Saracen sabres". New Scientist. 8 November 2006.
- ^ a b c "Legendary Swords' Sharpness, Strength From Nanotubes, Study Says". National Geographic. 2010-10-28. Archived from the original on 18 November 2006. Retrieved 19 November 2006.
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External links
- "Damascene Technique in Metal Working"
- Verhoeven, J.D.; Pendray, A.H.; Dauksch, W.E. (September 2004). "The continuing study of damascus steel: Bars from the Alwar Armory". JOM. 56 (9): 17–20. S2CID 137555792.
- Verhoeven, J.D. (2007). "Pattern Formation in Wootz Damascus Steel Swords and Blades" (PDF). Indian Journal of History of Science. 42 (4): 559–574. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-12-12.
- John Verhoeven: Mystery of Damascus Steel Swords Unveiled
- Wagner, Donald B. (2008), Science and Civilization in China Volume 5-11: Ferrous Metallurgy, Cambridge University Press
- Loades, Mike; Pendray, Al (21 November 2017). The Secrets of Wootz Damascus Steel. YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-11-17.
- US 5185044, Verhoeven, J.D. & Pendray, A.H., "Method of making "Damascus" blades", published 9 February 1993