Danaus chrysippus
| Plain tiger[1][2] African queen[2] | |
|---|---|
| |
| Upperside | |
| Male underside both D. c. chrysippus, Kerala, India | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Nymphalidae |
| Genus: | Danaus
|
| Species: | D. chrysippus
|
| Binomial name | |
| Danaus chrysippus | |
| |
| Synonyms | |
| |
_male_underside.jpg)
Danaus chrysippus, also known as the plain tiger,
D. chrysippus encompasses three main subspecies: D. c. alcippus, D. c. chrysippus, and D. c. orientis. These subspecies are found concentrated in specific regions within the larger range of the entire species.[5]
The plain tiger is believed to be one of the first butterflies depicted in art. A 3,500-year-old ancient Egyptian fresco in Luxor features the oldest known illustration of this species.[citation needed]
Description
D. chrysippus is a medium-sized butterfly with a wingspan of about 7–8 cm (2.8–3.1 in). The body is black with white spots. The wings are a brownish orange, the upper side brighter and richer than the underside. The apical half of the forewing is black with a white band. The hindwing has three black spots in the centre. The wings are bordered in black and outlined with semicircular white spots.[6] This species exhibits slight sexual dimorphism, as the male has large scent glands on his hindwings, which the female lacks. They appear as a large black spot with a white centre if viewed from the underside
D. chrysippus is a polymorphic species, so the exact colouring and patterning vary within and between populations.[7][8]
It is similar in appearance to the Indian fritillary (Argynnis hyperbius), which may coexist with it.[9][10]
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Close-up of the wing scales of a male Danaus chrysippus -
Male showing the pheromone pouch and brush-like organ in Kerala
Geographic range
The plain tiger is found across the entirety of Africa, where the predominant subspecies is D. c. alcippus. Its range extends across the majority of Asia throughout Indian subcontinent,[1] as well as many south Pacific islands. The plain tiger is even present in parts of Australia.[4] D. c. chrysippus is most common throughout Asia and in some select regions in Africa, while D. c. orientis is present in more tropical African regions as well as some African islands, including Madagascar and the Seychelles.[6][2] It is also found in Southern Europe and Kuwait. These insects are considered bioinvaders in North America.[citation needed]
Habitat
The plain tiger prefers
Food resources
Larval food plants
The plain tiger's larval host plants are from several families, most importantly Asclepiadoideae (Apocynaceae):[11]
- Apteranthes burchardii (recorded from Canary Islands/Spain)
- Asclepias – milkweeds (recorded on A. cancellata, A. coarctata, A. curassavica, A. fulva, A. kaessneri, A. lineolata, A. reflexa, A. scabrifolia, A. semilunata, A. stenophylla, A. swynnertonii, A. syriaca)
- Aspidoglossum interruptum
- Calotropis – mudar (recorded on C. gigantea, C. procera)
- Ceropegia dichotoma (recorded from Canary Islands/Spain)
- Cryptolepis dubia
- Cynanchum (recorded on C. abyssinicum, C. acutum, C. altiscandens, C. amplexicaule, C. carnosum, C. floribundum, C. pulchellum, C. rostellatum, C. sublanceolatum)
- Gomphocarpus (recorded on G. fruticosus, G. physocarpus)
- Kanahia laniflora
- Leichhardtia australis
- Leptadenia lanceolata
- Orbea variegata (recorded from Canary Islands/Spain)
- Pentatropis (recorded on P. atropurpurea, P. quinquepartita)
- Pergularia daemia
- Periploca linearifolia
- Secamone (recorded on S. afzelii, S. parvifolia, S. platystigma)
- Stapelia gigantea
- Stathmostelma (recorded on S. gigantiflorum, S. pedunculatum)
- Vincetoxicum (recorded on V. cernuum, V. sylvaticum, V. tanakae,)
Host plants from other families include Dyerophytum indicum (
Adult food plants
Adult plain tiger butterflies obtain nectar from various flowering plants. The particular plants available vary depending on the geographic range of the butterfly population and the season, as certain plants do not flower throughout the entire year.[12][13]
India
- Antigonon leptopus, January through April and August through December
- Asystasia gangetica
- Catharanthus roseus
- Cyanthillium cinereum
- Heliotropium indicum[citation needed]
- Lantana camara
- Tecoma stans, May through December[12]
- Tridax procumbens
Australia
- Asclepias
- Daviesia
- Eucalyptus conglobata
- E. oleosa
- Goodenia maideniana
- Lantana
- Leucopogon
- Ptilotis obovatus
In addition to nectar, adult plain tigers obtain pyrrolizidine alkaloids from the dead stems of different plant types. In Australia, the following plants have been identified as sources of pyrrolizidine alkaloids for D. chrysippus:[13]
- Echium plantogineum
- Heliotropium amplexicaule
- Parsonsia eucalyptophylla
- P. straminea
- Senecio pterophorus
Parental care
Oviposition
Females lay eggs singly on the underside of the leaves of a larval food plant.[12] The eggs are most often laid close to the ground.[citation needed]
Life history
Egg
The egg of the plain tiger is about 1.7 mm (0.067 in) long and 0.5 mm (0.020 in) across. When first laid it is white, but gradually turns brown over time. The egg is ridged and dome-shaped. Depending on temperature, the egg is typically hatched in 3–5 days.[12]
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Egg at Tamil Nadu, India -
At Mananpur, Mumbai, Maharashtra
Caterpillar
The larvae of D. chrysippus proceeds through five instar stages. The first instar is about 4 mm (0.16 in) long, and its body is white while the head is black. The second instar is about 8 mm (0.31 in) long, and its body is primarily gray with yellow and black horizontal stripes. This colouration remains for the final three instar stages. The third instar is about 14 mm (0.55 in) long, the fourth about 25 mm (0.98 in) long, and the fifth about 36 mm (1.4 in) long. Depending on temperature, the larval stage can last from 12 to 20 days.[12]
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Larva eating its own eggshell -
Caterpillar making "moat" to feed during the first instar -
Second instar -
Mature caterpillar -
Older caterpillar
_caterpillar_on_a_Calotropis_(Milkweed)_species_in_Hyderabad,_AP_W_IMG_7970.jpg)
Prepupal and pupal stages
Before pupation, the caterpillar will become motionless and cease feeding. Its colour shifts slightly from gray to brown, and it may lose a small amount of body mass. The prepupal stage lasts 1–3 days depending on temperature. The pupal stage lasts 9–15 days depending on temperature, and the pupa changes colour over this period from a pale green to dark brown. Pupae are about 17 mm (0.67 in) tall and 8 mm (0.31 in) wide.[12]
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Pupa -
Fresh pupa at Bandra Kurla Complex, Mumbai -
Pink pupa due to pupation among inanimate objects
Adult
Male and female D. chrysippus butterflies look very similar and are also similar in size. Adult butterflies typically have a wingspan of 75 mm (3.0 in). The bodies of adult plain tigers are about 23 mm (0.91 in) long, and their antennae are about 12 mm (0.47 in) long. Depending on temperature, males live about 10–15 days and females live about 7–12 days.[12]
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A newly emerged plain tiger female in captivity -
Male D. c. chrysippus, recently emerged from chrysalis -
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Mud-puddling -
Resting with its wings closed -
Basking
-_mud-puddling_in_Hyderabad,_AP_W_IMG_9741.jpg)
,_Bangalore,_India.jpg)
Enemies
Predators
Egg and larval predators
Most predators of the early developmental stages of D. chrysippus are arthropods. Such potential predators include various kinds of spiders, assassin bugs, cockroaches, ladybugs, ants, and mantises. The caterpillars will even cannibalise each other. Egg and larval mortality is often high; as many as 84% of eggs may be lost to predation and up to 97% of larvae can be lost by the fifth instar, although most larval deaths occur during the third instar.[14]
Adult predators
The most common predators of adult plain tigers are
Parasites
There are several organisms which parasitise the larvae of D. chrysippus. The fly S. flavohalterata of the Family Tachinidae is responsible for small amounts of parasitisation in D. chrysippus populations. It is unclear whether the fly oviposits on the eggs of D. chrysippus or whether the fly oviposits on leaves which are then consumed by D. chrysippus larvae. S. flavohalterata does not kill the larvae, and development is normal until the pupal stage, when larvae dies and the parasite emerges from the pupa instead. A. chrysippi, a parasitic wasp of the family Braconidae, oviposits on larvae early in their development and then kills them in the later stages. As many as fifty wasps may emerge from one large caterpillar, and they then pupate on the deceased host. Parasitic wasps of the genus Charops also infest plain tiger populations, likely during the egg or first instar stage, and then kill the larvae in a later instar stage.[16]
Sturmia convergens is also a parasitoid of D. chrysippus.[17]
Diseases
The plain tiger is infected by a male-killing
Protective coloration and behavior
The plain tiger is
Because the plain tiger is unpalatable (also called inedible), they are aposematic – their bright colouration serves as a warning to predators that they are either distasteful or toxic. Consequently, once a predator has made the mistake of attempting to eat a plain tiger, they will refrain in the future from attacking similarly coloured butterflies. This has led to the evolution of a number of other species which mimic the plain tiger in order to co-opt the protection conferred by such bright colouration.[20]
Batesian mimicry
Batesian mimics are palatable species which mimic unpalatable species, and D. chrysippus is a model for several Batesian mimics, including H. misippus, P. poggei, M. marshalli, and P. dardanus in east Africa. Batesian mimicry is only effective so long as the mimic is less common than the model, or predators will learn that the mimics are in fact edible and then attempt to eat the similar-looking unpalatable butterflies.[20]
Müllerian mimicry
Müllerian mimicry occurs when multiple species which are all unpalatable evolve to resemble one another. In this case, the relative abundance of each species does not have a deleterious effect on any others, because a predator which eats any one of them will be deterred from eating any similar-looking butterflies. In Uganda, D. chrysippus has several Müllerian mimics, including A. encedon and A. encedana.[20]
Genetics
Subspecies
Despite the external similarity, the common tiger (D. genutia) is not closely related to the plain tiger. Three subspecies were considered valid in a 2005 review:[5]
- Danaus chrysippus chrysippus
- Asia, Mediterraneanregion, northern tropical Africa
- Danaus chrysippus alcippus (Cramer, 1777) – formerly D. c. aegyptius
- From the . Browner with broader white forewing spots.
- Danaus chrysippus orientis (Aurivillius, 1909) – formerly D. c. liboria
- Mascarenes. Small white forewing spots.
D. c. alcippus is well on the way of becoming a distinct species.[5]
On the other hand, the former subspecies petilia, nowadays is recognised as a
However, it appears (from analysis of
The presumed subspecies cratippus most likely belongs to either the lesser wanderer or the dorippus tiger, but confirmation of its
Several local forms have been described from Asia:
- Danaus chrysippus chrysippus f. alcippoides
- The upper hindwing is more or less very white; about half of the individuals have a second submarginal spot in the forewing. Occasionally found in South-East Asia, very rarely in India.
- Danaus chrysippus chrysippus f. gelderi
- The upper hindwing has white markings. Occasionally found on Sulawesi.
- Danaus chrysippus chrysippus f. bowringi
- The upper hindwing has a subapical band composed of somewhat larger spots, and an additional forewing spot as in f. alcippoides is always present. Found throughout the eastern parts of this subspecies' range.
On the other hand, the plethora of named
- Danaus chrysippus × alcippoides
- is D. c. chrysippus × D. c. alcippus
- Danaus × transiens, Danaus × klugii, Danaus × albinus and Danaus × semialbinus
- are D. c. alcippus × D. dorippus
Genomes
When D. chrysippus was analysed via a sample from Kampala, Uganda, it was found that the population was undergoing a significant level of evolutionary change. Three loci were examined, and genotypic frequency differences found at two of the three suggested that opposing selective forces, likely pertaining to Mullerian and Batesian mimicry, acting on males and females is contributing to a balanced polymorphism.[20]
Courtship and mating
_mating_in_Hyderabad,_AP_W_IMG_9493.jpg)
In addition to conferring protection from predators, pyrrolizidine alkaloids are necessary in the mating ritual of D. chrysippus. Male plain tigers use the alkaloids to synthesize pheromones which are stored in hair-pencils sheathed in alar organs, which are specialised scales on top of the hindwing. The hair-pencils are fanned out during courtship to release these pheromones, and this appears to be necessary for attracting females. Males deprived of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in their diet are considerably less successful in mating; mating appears to occur preferentially between butterflies of the same subspecies, so colouration is likely also an important signal in the mating process. Female plain tigers have been recorded as mating up to four times.[13]
See also
- List of butterflies of India
- List of butterflies of India (Nymphalidae)
- List of butterflies of India (Danainae)
References
- ^ ISBN 978-81-929826-4-9.
- ^ a b c d e f Savela, Markku. "Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus, 1758)". Lepidoptera and Some Other Life Forms. Retrieved July 1, 2018.
- . Retrieved 4 January 2024.
- ^ a b c "Butterflies of Africa – Danaus chrysippus". www.learnaboutbutterflies.com. Retrieved 2017-10-22.
- ^ .
- ^ a b "Plain tiger videos, photos and facts – Danaus chrysippus". Arkive. Archived from the original on 2017-10-25. Retrieved 2017-10-22.
- Taylor and Francis; Thacker, Spink, & Co.; [etc.,etc.] pp. 11–13.
- ^ Moore, Frederic (1890–1892). Lepidoptera Indica. Vol. I. Vol. 1. London: Lovell Reeve and Co. pp. 36–41.
- ^ Aamir, Moh'd; Salman, Nour (2020-02-29). "Himalayan butterfly found in Fujairah". Dubai: WAM. Retrieved 2020-03-01.
- ^ Duncan, Gillian (2020-03-01). "Himalayan butterflies found for first time in UAE". The National. Retrieved 2020-03-01.
- doi:10.5519/havt50xw. Retrieved 2017-12-01.
- ^ a b c d e f g Golestaneh, S. R.; Askary, H.; Farar, N.; Dousti, A. (2009). "The life cycle of Danaus chrysippus Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) on Calotropis procera in Bushehr-Iran". Munis Entomology & Zoology. 4 (2): 451–456.
- ^ OCLC 769343248.
- S2CID 6102209.
- .
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- ^ "CAB Direct". www.cabdirect.org. Retrieved 2017-11-01.
- ^ S2CID 34436795.
- S2CID 27664625.
- ^ .
- Agius, J (2014). "Danaus chrysippus form alcippoides (Linnaeus, 1758) a new form for the Maltese Islands". SHILAP Revista de Lepidopterología. 42 (167): 429–432.
- Evans, W.H. (1932). The Identification of Indian Butterflies (2nd ed.). Mumbai, India: Bombay Natural History Society.
- Gaonkar, Harish (1996). Butterflies of the Western Ghats, India (including Sri Lanka) – A Biodiversity Assessment of a Threatened Mountain System. Bangalore, India: Centre for Ecological Sciences.
- Gay, Thomas; Kehimkar, Isaac David; Punetha, Jagdish Chandra (1992). Common Butterflies of India. Nature Guides. Bombay, India: World Wide Fund for Nature-India by Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195631647.
- Gil-T., Felipe (2006): A new hostplant for Danaus plexippus L. in Europe. A study of cryptic preimaginal polymorphism within Danaus chrysippus L. in southern Spain (Andalusia) (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae, Danainae). Atalanta 37 (1/2): 143–149, 279. Full article: [1].
- HOSTS (2007): A Database of the World's Lepidopteran Hostplants. Retrieved 2007-AUG-01.
- Kunte, Krushnamegh (2000). Butterflies of Peninsular India. India, A Lifescape. Hyderabad, India: Universities Press. ISBN 978-8173713545.
- Larsen, Torben (1994): Butterflies of Egypt Archived 2010-01-13 at the Saudi Aramco World, issue 5 (September/October): 24–27.
- ISBN 978-8170192329.
- van der Heyden, T (2010). "Orbea variegata (L.) Haworth, 1812 (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae) als Futterpflanze der Larven von Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus, 1758) auf den Kanarischen Inseln (Spanien) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae, Danainae)". SHILAP Revista de Lepidopterología. 38 (149): 107–110.